A.C.

Bridges 499

since CT and C3 shunt the Wagner arms Z5 and Z6, ;. Resistance of coil :
these capacitances are eliminated from the bridge rl =r2~Rl= 327 - L36 = 3134 Q
network Zr Z2, Z3 and Z4. Inductance of coil,
The capacitances and C3, shunting Z5 and Z6,
Lj = L, =47.8 mH.
complicate these arms, and because of this the
combination may not give a true balance against Z2 Example 16.4 A Maxwell's capacitance bridge shown
and Z4, only a minimum being attainable during the in Fig. 16.4 is used to measure an unknown inductance in
Wagner balance. The existence of these capacitances comparison with capacitance. The various values at balance,
should be borne in mind when deciding the form of R2 = 400C1; R3 = 600 Cl; R4 = 1000 Cl; 6^ = 0.5 pF.
the Wagner arm, which should preferably be
composed of resistances and capacitances. Much of Calculate the values ofR} and Lj. Calculate also the value of
and C3 will be due to the earth capacitance of the storage (Q) factor ofcoil iffrequency is 1000 Hz.
source transformer and a common cause of difficulty Solution. At balance,
in achieving a good Wagner balance is due to the use ( R
of transformers with large and lossy earth capacitance. (Rj + ycoLj) - = R2^3-
Poor insulation in the source transformer will cause <1+ ,
resistance to appear shunting Gj and C3. Some of the Separating the real and imaginary terms, we have
disadvantages of the use of Wagner earth devices can
400 x 600 = 24Qn
be overcome by using double ratio a.c. bridges; which
1 Rt 1000
have two sets of inductively coupled ratio arms.
and Lj = R, R3 C4
™ 'HC7' The students must attempt these problems = 400 x 600 x 0.5 x 10-6 = 0.12 H.
from fundamentals although here direct
formulae have been used since analysis has been done Storage factor,
earlier. _ wLj _2nxlOOx0.12
240
Example 16.3 A Maxwell's inductance comparison
bridge is shown in Fig. 16.23. Arm ab consists of a coil with Example 16.5 An inductance of 0.22 H and 20 Cl
inductance and resistance in series with a resistance is measured by comparison with a fixed standard
non-inductive resistance R. Arm be and coil ad are each a inductance of 0.1 H and 40 Cl resistance. They are connected
non-inductive resistance of 100 Cl. Arm ad consists of as shown in Fig. 16.24(a). The unknown inductance is in
standard variable inductor Lof resistance 32.7 Cl. Balance is arm aband the standard inductance is arm be, a resistance of
obtained when = 47.8 mH and R = 1.36 Cl. Find the 750Cl is connected in arm cd and a resistance whose amount
resistance and inductance of the coil in arm ab. is not known is in arm da.
Find the resistance of arm da and show any necessary and
practical additions required to achieve both resistive and
inductive balance.

Fig. 16.23 Diagram of Example 16.3.

Solution. At balance
[(Ri +r]) + /(oL1]xlOO =(r2 + ;©Z2)xlOO
Equating the real and imaginary terms -
R] + Tj = r2 and 1^ = 1^ Fig. 16.24(a) Diagram of Example 16.5.
 500 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Solution. Now R} = 20 Q ; L, = 0.22 H ; When this bridge is fed from a source of 500 Hz, balance is
obtained under following conditions :
R4 =750Q; R3=40Q; L=0.1H.
At balance, (R4 + /'coL,) R4 = Ry (Ry + ycolg) Ry = 2410 Q ; R3 = 750 Q ; C4 = 0.35 pF; R4 = 64.5 Q.
Thus the two balance equations are : The series resistance of capacitor = 0.4<A, Calculate the
R2 R-^ , Ry L, resistance and inductance of the choke coil.
1 R4 H r4
The supply is connected between a and c and the detector is
From above, we have between b and d.
Solution. When we draw the sketch of this
R3 bridge, we find that it is Hay's bridge shown in
.'. Value of R2 required for balance Fig. 16.5. The analysis of Hay's bridge is done in
Art. 16.5.3. on page 484.
R, = R =750x —= 1650 0 Now from Eqns. 16.21 and 16.22, inductance and
4k o-1
resistance of the coil are :
and A = ^2 = 2.2.
_ R2 ^3^4
^3 R4
l + co2C2R2
Now examine the value of ratio — for the existing
*3 2410 x 750 x 0.35 xlQ~6
circuit, we have 1 + (2 rr x 500 x 0.35 x 10-6 x 64.9)

= 0.63 H.

The value of this ratio should be 2.2 for both _ (0 RyRyR^R^

resistive and inductive balance and therefore we must and
1 l + co2C2R2
add a series resistance to arm ab. Let this series
resistance be rr Therefore J2nx 500)2 x 2410 x 750 x 64.9 x (0.35 x 10~6)2
R, + n 1 + (2 71 x 500 x 0.35 x 10~6 x 64.9)2
—1—1 = 2.2 or n =22 x 40 -20 =68 Q.
*3 1
= 141.1 Q
The modified circuit is shown in Fig. 16.24(h).
(Note that the resistance of arm cd is the sum of
resistance of the series resistor and the series
resistance of capacitor i.e., R4 =64.5+0.4 = 64.90).

Example 16.7 The arms of a five node bridge are as

follows :
arm ab : an unknown impedance (R1,L[) in series with
a non-inductive variable resistor r.,
arm be : a non-inductive resistor Ry = 100 O,
arm cd : a non-inductive resistor R4 = 200 Q
arm da : a non-inductive resistor R^ = 250 O,
arm de : a non-inductive variableresistor r
Fig. 16.24(b) Diagram of Example 16.5. arm ec : a loss-less capacitor C = 1 pF, and
arm be : a detector.
Example 16.6 A bridge consists of the following :
An a.c. supply is connected between a and a
Ann ab: a choke coil having a resistance R^ and
inductance Iy. Calculate the resistance and inductance Rp Iy when under
balance conditions =43.1 O and, r = 229.7 O.
Arm be: a non-inductive resistance Ry
Arm cd: a mica condenser C4 in series with a Solution. After drawing the network we find that
non-inductive resistance R..
4 it is the Anderson's bridge shown in Fig. 16.6 and
Arm da : a non-inductive resistance Ry dealt with in Art. 16.5.4 on page 485.
A.C. Bridges 501

From Eqns. 16.26 and 16.27, Example 16.9 An Owen's bridge is used to measure the
properties of a sample of sheet steel at 2 kHz. At balance,
Resistance,
arm ab is test specimen ; arm be is R3 = 100 Q ; arm cd is
250x100 19n
C4 =0.1 pF and arm da is R^ = 8340 in series with C =
1 R,
4
1 200 0.124 pF. Derive balance conditions and calculate the
Inductance, effective impedance of the specimen under test conditions.
I1 = ^l[r(R4+R2)+R2R4] Solution. Let Rj and be the effective resistance
and inductance of the specimen respectively.
= 1 x IO- x ~[229.7(200 + 250) + 250 x 200]

= 0.0766 H.
Example 16.S The four arms of a bridge are :
arm ab : an imperfect capacitor Cj with an equivalent
series resistance of
arm be: a non-inductive resistance Ry
arm cd : a non-inductive resistance R4'
A,
arm da : an imperfect capacitor C2 with an equivalent
series resistance ofn, series with a resistance R2.
A supply of 450 Hz is given between terminals a and cand
the detector is connected between b and d. At balance :
R2=4.8O, R3= 2000 0, R4 = 2850 Q and
C2 = 0.5 pF and r2 = 0.4 Q.
Calculate the value of C4 and r4 and also of the dissipating = R2R3C4= 834x100 x [Link] 10-6H
factor for this capacitor. = 8.34 mH
Solution. The bridge is shown in Fig. 16.25. and R1 = R_ -i =100 x-°^- = 80.7 Q.
1 3 C2 0.124

Reactance of specimen at 2 kHz,

= 2 k x 2 x 1000 x 8.34 x 10’3 = 104.5 Q.
Impedance of specimen
\ = 7(80.7)2 + (104.5)2 = 132 Q.

Example 16.10 A sheet of bakelite 4.5 mm thick is tested

at 50 Hz between electrodes 0.12 m in diameter. The Schering
bridge employs a standard air capacitor C2 of 106 pF
capacitance, a non-reactive resistance R4 of lOOO/nO in
parallel with a variable capacitor C4=0.5pF, and a
non-reactive variable resistance Ry
Fig. 16.25 Diagram of Example 16.8.
Balance is obtained with C4 =0.5 pF and R2 = 260 0.
At balance + Calculate the capacitance, power factor and relative
permittivity of sheet.
Separating the real and imaginary terms Solution. The Schering bridge is shown in
rl = (r2 + R2)-?3 = (0 4 + 4.8) x |22£ = 3.65 Q Fig. 16.11 where C1 and represent the capacitance
1\.4 ZoDU and series resistance of the capacitor. From Eqns. 16.35
and C. =C>^-=(0.5x10^) x—F = 0.712 pF and 16.36
~ R3 2000 >i = I1 R3 = 0,5X10 260 =1.23 x 106Q
Dissipating factor, 1 C2 3 106 xlO’12

Dj = tanSj = (oC1r1 =2nx 450x0.712 x 10^x3 55 R. 1000

and C.=—C2=--------- x 106x 10~12F = 130 pF.
= 0.00734. 1 R3 2 nx260 r
 502 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

Power factor of sheet From (i) and (ii), we have

= 0)^^ =2rtx50xl30xl0-12xl.23xl06 = 0.05. C, R. , 2z-
9 9
_2_4 + coc2r
c3r /?2
c4a 4
Now capacitance, C4 = er eQ — C =—23______________
I 1 , 2 z-^2 n2
1 + co C4 K4
z. Relative permittivity

sr =
C.d 130x10-12x4.5x10-3
=------------------------------ =5.9 now w2c, c, c. r.2« -A
eoA 8.854 x 10-12 x ^(0.12)2 2344 *3
and co2C4R4«1.
where eq =permittivity of free space =8.84 x 10-12 F/m. Hence we can write
Example 16.11 In a low-voltage Schering bridge
Ci = C2 —
designed for the measurement of permittivity, the branch ab 1 2R
consists of two electrodes between which the specimen under
When the capacitor Cf is without specimen
test may be inserted; arm be is a non-reactive resistor R3 in
dielectric, let its capacitance be CQ.
parallel with a standard capacitor C, arm cd is a non-
r r R4 1Rn 5000 _
reactive resistor R4 in parallel with a standard capacitor C4 ; Cn = C~ —- = 150 x------ = 150 pF.
0 2 R3 5000 r
arm da is a standard air capacitor of capacitance C2.
Without the specimen between the electrodes, balance is When the specimen is inserted as dielectric, let the
obtained with the following values ; C3=C4 = 120 pF, capacitance be Cg.
C2 = 150 pF, R3 - R4 = 5000 Q. With the specimen .-. C=C2^= 900x^^ = 900 pF.
inserted these values become C3 =200 pF, C4 =1000 pF, s 2 Rq 5000
and R3 = R4 = 5000 Q. In each test co = 5000 rad/s. Find the
relative permittivity of the specimen. Now Co = £0 A / d and Cs = sr eq A / d.
Solution. The voltage circuit is shown in Hence relative permittivity of specimen
Fig- 16.27. Cs 900 4
£ = — =---- =6.
r co 150

Example 16.12 The arms of a four arm bridge abed,

supplied with sinusoidal voltage, have the following values:
arm ab: A resistance of 200 Q in parallel with a
capacitance 1 pF.
arm be: 400 Q resistance,
arm cd : 1000 Q resistance.
arm da : A resistance IT, in series with a 2 pF capacitance.
Determine the value of R2 and the frequency at which the
bridge will balance.

pig. 16.27
Solution. If we draw the sketch of this bridge, we
find that it is Wien's bridge shown in Fig. 16.20.
For balance Yj Y4 = Y, Y3 The analysis of this bridge is given in Art. 16.8.1.
1 From Eqn. 16.63,
1 • 1
or R^ + ;(0C1 —+ 7'coC4 =(7’coC2) —+ >C3 fdtS L flOOO lxl0~6>
R‘4 x200
IR3 C2 J I 400 2 x 10“6 ,
or —- ----- co2C C4 + / = ]&-=-a C2C3 = 400 Q.
1 4) K3
From Eqn. 16.64, the frequency at which the
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we have bridge balance,
f =______ 1______
-(j) 2n JR^R^C;
RR
^4 + Q =----- 1 = 398 Hz.
and -(H)
R4 R3 2 tW200 x 400 x 1 x 10-6 x 2 x 10~6
A.C. Bridges 503

Example 16.13 16-17 shows a Heaviside Campbell 46.5 10

= 46.5 1 ±
bridge for measurement of a self-inductance with the 1± 10/4920 4920/
equal ratios i.e., R3 - R4, the following results were obtained: = 46.5(1 ± 0.00204) = 46.5 ± 0.095 Q.
With switch open M = 15.8 mH and r = 25.7 Q. This resistance includes the series resistance of
With switch close M = 0.2 mH and r = 1.2Cl. capacitor.
Find the resistance and self-inductance ofcoil. Series resistance of capacitor
Solution. The theory of this bridge is dealt in = (46.5 ±0.095)-(25.1 ±0.1)
Art. 16.7.4. = 21.4 ±0.195 Q
From Eqns. 16.49 and 16.50, for equal ratios 0.195
Limits of accuracy = x 100 = 0.915%
Self-inductance 21.4
L, =2(M1-M2)=2(15.8-0.2)=31.2mH
16.12 TRANSFORMER RATIO BRIDGE
Resistance
The Transformer Ratio Bridges are becoming
=r}-r2 =25.7-11.2 =14.5 Q. increasingly popular and are being used for a wide
Example 16.14 A modified Carey Foster's bridge shown range of applications. This is on account of versatility
in Fig 16.18 is used for measurement of capacitance. Arm ab and accuracy of Ratio Transformers, which are used in
contains the secondary winding a mutual inductance of the transformer ratio bridges. In fact, transformer ratio
18.35 mH and a total non-reactive resistance of 200 Cl. The bridges are replacing the conventional a.c. bridges at a
inductance of secondary of mutual inductor in arm ab is rapid rate.
40.6 mH. Arm ad is short circuited. Arm be contains the A transformer ratio bridge consists of voltage
unknown capacitor in series with a resistance of 119.5 Q. transformer whose performance approaches that of an
Arm cd comprises of a resistor of 100 Cl resistance. The ideal transformer. An ideal transformer is one that has
detector is across bd. Determine the capacitance and its no resistance, no core loss and no leakage flux (i.e.,
equivalent series resistance. there is perfect coupling between the windings).
Solution. From the analysis carried in Art. 16.7.6, The ratio transformer is provided with a number
we have of tappings in order to obtain voltage division.
Capacitance C3 == 18:36x 10 3 F = 0.918 pF. Voltage appearing across the windings of a
r 3 R. R, 200x100 transformer is :
R4( \ - M) _ 100(40.6 -18.36) E = 4KfN®mf volt ...(16.66)
= 121.2 Q.
—M " 18.36 where N = number of turns,
.’. Series resistance of capacitor = maximum value of flux ; Wb,
= 121.2 -119.5 = 1.7 Q. f = frequency ; Hz,
Example 16.15 R* a modified Carey-Foster bridge Kf = form sector
shown in Fig. 16.18. At balance R4 = 10C1, R3 =25.1 ± 0.1 Cl, (Its value is 1.11 for sinusoidal flux).
= 100 Q, = 22.82 mH and M = 4920 ± 10 pH. Find For a given value of Kj, flux <b))( and frequency f,
the unknown capacitance C3 and the limits of accuracy
E=K1N ...(16.67)
determined by the limits of balance measurements indicated.
Figure 16.28 shows an autotransformer provided
Solution. From Eqn. 16.59, we get
with tappings. Suppose an alternating voltage E is
4920 ±10
3 ’ R1 R4
= 4.92 ± 0.01 pF. applied across the winding. Assuming that the
100x10 Tappings

Accuracy limit = 221 x 100 = 0.2%

4.92
Example 16.16 Suppose in the above example the value
of R3 does not include the series loss resistance of capacitor,
find the loss resistance and limits of its accuracy.
Solution. From Eqn. 16.60,
R = ~M) = 228200
M 4920(1 ±10/4920) Fig. 16.28 Tapped autotransformer.