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Module Objectives
Module Title: Protocols and Models
Module Objective: Explain how network protocols enable devices to access local and remote
network resources.
Topic Title Topic Objective
The Rules Describe the types of rules that are necessary to successfully communicate.

Module 3: Protocols and Protocols Explain why protocols are necessary in network communication.

Models Protocol Suites Explain the purpose of adhering to a protocol suite.

Standards Organizations Explain the role of standards organizations in establishing protocols for network
interoperability.
Instructor Materials
Reference Models Explain how the TCP/IP model and the OSI model are used to facilitate
standardization in the communication process.

Introduction to Networks v7.0 Data Encapsulation Explain how data encapsulation allows data to be transported across the
(ITN) network.
Data Access Explain how local hosts access local resources on a network.

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Class Activity – Design a Communications System

Design a Communications System
Objectives:
• Explain the role of protocols and standards organizations in facilitating
interoperability in network communications.

3.1 The Rules

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The Rules The Rules

Video – Devices in a Bubble Communications Fundamentals

Networks can vary in size and complexity. It is not enough to have a connection,
This video will explain the protocols that devices use to see their place in the devices must agree on “how” to communicate.
network and communicate with other devices.
There are three elements to any communication:
• There will be a source (sender).
• There will be a destination (receiver).
• There will be a channel (media) that provides for the path of communications to
occur.

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The Rules The Rules

Communications Protocols Rule Establishment
• All communications are governed by protocols. • Individuals must use established rules or agreements to govern the conversation.

• Protocols are the rules that communications will follow. • The first message is difficult to read because it is not formatted properly. The second shows
the message properly formatted
• These rules will vary depending on the protocol.

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The Rules The Rules

Rule Establishment (Cont.) Network Protocol Requirements
Protocols must account for the following requirements: Common computer protocols must be in agreement and include the following
• An identified sender and receiver requirements:

• Common language and grammar • Message encoding

• Speed and timing of delivery • Message formatting and encapsulation
• Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements • Message size
• Message timing
• Message delivery options

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The Rules The Rules

Message Encoding Message Formatting and Encapsulation
• Encoding is the process of converting information into another acceptable form for • When a message is sent, it must use a specific format or structure.
transmission.
• Message formats depend on the type of message and the channel that is used to
• Decoding reverses this process to interpret the information. deliver the message.

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The Rules The Rules

Message Size Message Timing
Encoding between hosts must be in an appropriate format for the medium. Message timing includes the following:
• Messages sent across the network are converted to bits Flow Control – Manages the rate of data transmission and defines how much information
• The bits are encoded into a pattern of light, sound, or electrical impulses. can be sent and the speed at which it can be delivered.
• The destination host must decode the signals to interpret the message. Response Timeout – Manages how long a device waits when it does not hear a reply from
the destination.
Access method - Determines when someone can send a message.
• There may be various rules governing issues like “collisions”. This is when more than one
device sends traffic at the same time and the messages become corrupt.
• Some protocols are proactive and attempt to prevent collisions; other protocols are
reactive and establish a recovery method after the collision occurs.

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The Rules The Rules

Message Delivery Options A Note About the Node Icon
Message delivery may one of the following methods: • Documents may use the node icon , typically a circle, to represent all devices.
• Unicast – one to one communication
• The figure illustrates the use of the node icon for delivery options.
• Multicast – one to many, typically not all
• Broadcast – one to all

Note: Broadcasts are used in IPv4 networks, but are not an option for IPv6. Later we will also
see “Anycast” as an additional delivery option for IPv6.

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Protocols
Network Protocol Overview
Network protocols define a
Protocol Type Description
common set of rules.
• Can be implemented on
devices in: Network enable two or more devices to communicate over
Communications one or more networks
• Software
3.2 Protocols • Hardware Network Security secure data to provide authentication, data
integrity, and data encryption
• Both
• Protocols have their own: Routing enable routers to exchange route information,
compare path information, and select best path
• Function
• Format Service used for the automatic detection of devices or
• Rules Discovery services

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Protocols Protocols
Network Protocol Functions Protocol Interaction
• Devices use agreed-upon protocols
• Networks require the use of several
to communicate .
protocols.
• Protocols may have may have one
• Each protocol has its own function and format.
or functions.

Function Description Protocol Function

Addressing Identifies sender and receiver Hypertext Transfer ▪ Governs the way a web server and a web client interact
Protocol (HTTP) ▪ Defines content and format
Reliability Provides guaranteed delivery
Transmission Control ▪ Manages the individual conversations
Flow Control Ensures data flows at an efficient rate Protocol (TCP) ▪ Provides guaranteed delivery
▪ Manages flow control
Sequencing Uniquely labels each transmitted segment of data
Internet Protocol (IP) Delivers messages globally from the sender to the receiver
Error Detection Determines if data became corrupted during transmission
Ethernet Delivers messages from one NIC to another NIC on the same Ethernet Local
Application Interface Process-to-process communications between network applications Area Network (LAN)
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Protocol Suites
Network Protocol Suites
Protocols must be able to work with other
protocols.
Protocol suite:
• A group of inter-related protocols

3.3 Protocol Suites necessary to perform a communication

function
• Sets of rules that work together to help
solve a problem
The protocols are viewed in terms of layers:
• Higher Layers
• Lower Layers- concerned with moving
data and provide services to upper
layers
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Protocol Suites Protocol Suites

Evolution of Protocol Suites TCP/IP Protocol Example
There are several protocol suites. • TCP/IP protocols operate at the
• Internet Protocol Suite or TCP/IP- The application, transport, and
most common protocol suite and maintained internet layers.
by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) • The most common network
access layer LAN protocols are
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Ethernet and WLAN (wireless
protocols- Developed by the International
LAN).
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and
the International Telecommunications Union
(ITU)

• AppleTalk- Proprietary suite release by

Apple Inc.

• Novell NetWare- Proprietary suite

developed by Novell Inc.

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Protocol Suites Protocol Suites

TCP/IP Protocol Suite TCP/IP Communication Process
• TCP/IP is the protocol suite used by • A web server encapsulating and sending a • A client de-encapsulating the web page for
the internet and includes many
web page to a client. the web browser
protocols.

• TCP/IP is:

• An open standard protocol suite

that is freely available to the public
and can be used by any vendor
• A standards-based protocol suite
that is endorsed by the networking
industry and approved by a
standards organization to ensure
interoperability

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Standards Organizations
Open Standards
Open standards encourage:
• interoperability

• competition

• innovation
3.4 Standards Organizations Standards organizations are:
• vendor-neutral

• non-profit organizations

• established to develop and promote the

concept of open standards.

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Standards Organizations Standards Organizations

• Internet Society (ISOC) - Promotes
Internet Standards the open development and evolution of
Internet Standards (Cont.)
internet Standards organizations involved with the
development and support of TCP/IP
• Internet Architecture Board (IAB) -
• Internet Corporation for Assigned
Responsible for management and
Names and Numbers (ICANN) -
development of internet standards Coordinates IP address allocation, the
• Internet Engineering Task Force management of domain names, and
assignment of other information
(IETF) - Develops, updates, and
maintains internet and TCP/IP • Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
technologies (IANA) - Oversees and manages IP
address allocation, domain name
• Internet Research Task Force management, and protocol identifiers
(IRTF) - Focused on long-term for ICANN
research related to internet and
TCP/IP protocols
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Standards Organizations Standards Organizations

Electronic and Communications Standards Lab – Researching Networking Standards
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE, pronounced “I-triple-E”) In this lab, you will do the following:
- dedicated to creating standards in power and energy, healthcare, • Part 1: Research Networking Standards Organizations
telecommunications, and networking
• Part 2: Reflect on Internet and Computer Networking Experience
• Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) - develops standards relating to electrical
wiring, connectors, and the 19-inch racks used to mount networking equipment
• Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) - develops communication
standards in radio equipment, cellular towers, Voice over IP (VoIP) devices,
satellite communications, and more
• International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication
Standardization Sector (ITU-T) - defines standards for video compression,
Internet Protocol Television (IPTV), and broadband communications, such as a
digital subscriber line (DSL)
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Reference Models
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model

Complex concepts such as how a

network operates can be difficult to
explain and understand. For this
reason, a layered model is used.

3.5 Reference Models Two layered models describe network

operations:
• Open System Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model
• TCP/IP Reference Model

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Reference Models Reference Models

The Benefits of Using a Layered Model (Cont.) The OSI Reference Model
These are the benefits of using a layered model: OSI Model Layer Description
• Assist in protocol design because protocols that operate at a specific layer have 7 - Application Contains protocols used for process-to-process communications.
defined information that they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above Provides for common representation of the data transferred between application
6 - Presentation
and below layer services.

• Foster competition because products from different vendors can work together 5 - Session Provides services to the presentation layer and to manage data exchange.

Defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data for individual
• Prevent technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers 4 - Transport
communications.
above and below
3 - Network Provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the network.
• Provide a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities
2 - Data Link Describes methods for exchanging data frames over a common media.

1 - Physical Describes the means to activate, maintain, and de-activate physical connections.

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Reference Models Reference Models

The TCP/IP Reference Model OSI and TCP/IP Model Comparison
TCP/IP Model
Description
Layer • The OSI model divides the network
Application Represents data to the user, plus encoding and dialog control. access layer and the application
layer of the TCP/IP model into
Transport Supports communication between various devices across diverse networks. multiple layers.

Internet Determines the best path through the network. • The TCP/IP protocol suite does not
specify which protocols to use when
Network Access Controls the hardware devices and media that make up the network. transmitting over a physical medium.
• OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss the
necessary procedures to access the
media and the physical means to
send data over a network.

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Reference Models
Packet Tracer – Investigate the TCP/IP and OSI Models in Action
This simulation activity is intended to provide a foundation for understanding the
TCP/IP protocol suite and the relationship to the OSI model. Simulation mode
allows you to view the data contents being sent across the network at each layer.
In this Packet Tracer, you will:
• Part 1: Examine HTTP Web Traffic 3.6 Data Encapsulation
• Part 2: Display Elements of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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Data Encapsulation Data Encapsulation

Segmenting Messages Segmenting is the process of breaking up Sequencing
messages into smaller units. Multiplexing is
the processes of taking multiple streams of
segmented data and interleaving them
together. Sequencing messages is the process of
numbering the segments so that the
Segmenting messages has two primary
message may be reassembled at the
benefits:
destination.
• Increases speed - Large amounts of
TCP is responsible for sequencing the
data can be sent over the network
individual segments.
without tying up a communications link.
• Increases efficiency - Only segments
which fail to reach the destination need to
be retransmitted, not the entire data
stream .

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Data Encapsulation Data Encapsulation

Encapsulation is the process where protocols
Protocol Data Units add their information to the data. Encapsulation Example
• At each stage of the process, a PDU has a • Encapsulation is a top down
different name to reflect its new functions. process.
• There is no universal naming convention for • The level above does its
PDUs, in this course, the PDUs are named process and then passes it
according to the protocols of the TCP/IP down to the next level of the
suite. model. This process is
• PDUs passing down the stack are as
repeated by each layer until
follows: it is sent out as a bit stream.

1. Data (Data Stream)

2. Segment
3. Packet
4. Frame
5. Bits (Bit Stream)
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Data Encapsulation
De-encapsulation Example
• Data is de-encapsulated as it moves up
the stack.
• When a layer completes its process,
that layer strips off its header and
passes it up to the next level to be
processed. This is repeated at each
layer until it is a data stream that the
3.7 Data Access
application can process.
1. Received as Bits (Bit Stream)
2. Frame
3. Packet
4. Segment
5. Data (Data Stream)
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Data Access Data Access

Addresses Layer 3 Logical Address
Both the data link and network layers use addressing to deliver data from source to
destination. The IP packet contains two IP
addresses:
Network layer source and destination addresses - Responsible for delivering the IP
packet from original source to the final destination. • Source IP address - The IP
address of the sending device,
Data link layer source and destination addresses – Responsible for delivering the data
original source of the packet.
link frame from one network interface card (NIC) to another NIC on the same network.
• Destination IP address - The IP
address of the receiving device,
final destination of the packet.
These addresses may be on the same
link or remote.

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Data Access Data Access

Layer 3 Logical Address (Cont.) Devices on the Same Network
An IP address contains two parts:
• Network portion (IPv4) or Prefix (IPv6)
When devices are on the same
network the source and destination will
• The left-most part of the address indicates have the same number in network
the network group which the IP address is portion of the address.
a member.
• PC1 – [Link]
• Each LAN or WAN will have the same
network portion. • FTP Server – [Link]
• Host portion (IPv4) or Interface ID
(IPv6)
• The remaining part of the address identifies
a specific device within the group.
• This portion is unique for each device on
the network.
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Data Access Data Access

Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses: Same IP Network Devices on a Remote Network
When devices are on the same Ethernet • What happens when the actual
network the data link frame will use the (ultimate) destination is not on the
actual MAC address of the destination same LAN and is remote?
NIC.
• What happens when PC1 tries to
MAC addresses are physically embedded reach the Web Server?
into the Ethernet NIC and are local
• Does this impact the network and data
addressing.
link layers?
• The Source MAC address will be that of
the originator on the link.
• The Destination MAC address will
always be on the same link as the
source, even if the ultimate destination
is remote.
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Data Access Data Access

Role of the Network Layer Addresses Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses: Different IP Networks
When the source and destination have When the final destination is remote, Layer
3 will provide Layer 2 with the local default
a different network portion, this means
gateway IP address, also known as the
they are on different networks.
router address.
• PC1 – 192.168.1
• The default gateway (DGW) is the router
• Web Server – 172.16.1 interface IP address that is part of this
LAN and will be the “door” or “gateway” to
all other remote locations.

• All devices on the LAN must be told about

this address or their traffic will be confined
to the LAN only.
• Once Layer 2 on PC1 forwards to the
default gateway (Router), the router then
can start the routing process of getting the
information to actual destination.
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Data Access Data Access

Role of the Data Link Layer Addresses: Different IP Networks Data Link Addresses
(Cont.) • Since data link addressing is local addressing, it will have a source and destination for
• The data link addressing is local each segment or hop of the journey to the destination.
addressing so it will have a source and
• The MAC addressing for the first segment is:
destination for each link.
• Source – (PC1 NIC) sends frame
• The MAC addressing for the first
segment is : • Destination – (First Router- DGW interface) receives frame

• Source – AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA
(PC1) Sends the frame.
• Destination – 11-11-11-11-11-11 (R1-
Default Gateway MAC) Receives
the frame.
Note: While the L2 local addressing will
change from link to link or hop to hop, the
L3 addressing remains the same.
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Data Access Data Access

Data Link Addresses (Cont.) Data Link Addresses (Cont.)
The MAC addressing for the second hop is: The MAC addressing for the last segment is:
• Source – (First Router- exit interface) sends frame • Source – (Second Router- exit interface) sends frame
• Destination – (Second Router) receives frame • Destination – (Web Server NIC) receives frame

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Data Access Data Access

Data Link Addresses (Cont.) Lab – Install Wireshark
• Notice that the packet is not modified, but the frame is changed, therefore the L3 IP
addressing does not change from segment to segment like the L2 MAC addressing.
In this lab you will do the following:
• The L3 addressing remains the same since it is global and the ultimate destination is still
the Web Server. • Download and Install Wireshark

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Data Access
Lab – Use Wireshark to View Network Traffic
In this lab, you will do the following:
• Part 1: Capture and Analyze Local ICMP Data in Wireshark
• Part 2: Capture and Analyze Remote ICMP Data in Wireshark

3.8 Module Practice and Quiz

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Module Practice and Quiz Module Practice and Quiz

What did I learn in this module? What did I learn in this module? (Cont.)
The Rules Reference Models
• Protocols must have a sender and a receiver. • The two models used in networking are the TCP/IP and the OSI model.
• Common computer protocols include these requirements: message encoding, formatting • The TCP/IP model has 4 layers and the OSI model has 7 layers.
and encapsulation, size, timing, and delivery options. Data Encapsulation
Protocols • The form that a piece of data takes at any layer is called a protocol data unit (PDU).
• To send a message across the network requires the use of several protocols. • There are five different PDUs used in the data encapsulation process: data, segment, packet,
frame, and bits
• Each network protocol has its own function, format, and rules for communications.
Data Access
Protocol Suites
• The Network and Data Link layers are going to provide addressing to move data through the
• A protocol suite is a group of inter-related protocols. network.
• TCP/IP protocol suite are the protocols used today. • Layer 3 will provide IP addressing and layer 2 will provide MAC addressing.
Standards Organizations • The way these layers handle addressing will depend on whether the source and the destination
• Open standards encourage interoperability, competition, and innovation. are on the same network or if the destination is on a different network from the source.

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