Chapter 17: Variation and Selection
Variation:
Variation refers to the differences between individuals of the same species.
There are two types of variation
1) Continuous variation: Continuous variation is a variation that results in a range of
phenotypes between two extremes; examples include hair length, body length
and body mass.
2) Discontinuous variation: Discontinuous variation is a variation that results in a
limited number of phenotypes with no intermediates; examples include ABO
blood groups, seed shape in peas and seed colour in peas.
Discontinuous variation is usually caused by genes only while continuous variation is
caused by both genes and the environment.
Mutation
• Gene mutation is a random change in the base sequence of DNA.
• Mutation is the way in which new alleles are formed.
• Certain heavy metals (such as lead and mercury) and ionising radiations such as
(X-rays, alpha rays, beta rays and gamma rays) and some chemicals can cause or
increase the rate of mutation. They are called mutagens.
• Mutations cause a random change in base sequence which determines amino
acid sequence so mutation in DNA can change proteins that are made.
• If the protein made has a different shape, then it will not be able to carry out its
functions.
•
Sources of genetic variation in populations
i. Mutation
ii. Meiosis
iii. Random mating
iv. Random fertilisation
i. Mutation
Mutation is a random change in the base sequence of DNA and results in formation of
new alleles.
ii. Meiosis
In meiosis, the gametes formed contain different combinations of alleles as the pair of
homologous chromosomes is separated from one another.
Example: Gg
m genotype (of diploid cell)
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Gm t gm possible gametes (haploid cells)
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iii. Random mating t t
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For most plants and animals, any a
a male individual and any female individual can
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potentially reproduce together. n i
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iv. Random fertilisation m
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Any male gamete can fuse with, any female , gamete at fertilisation so there are many
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possible combinations of allelesm that canmbe produced in a zygote.
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Adaptive features i i
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Adaptive feature is an inheriteds feature sthat helps an organism to survive and
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reproduce in its environment. , n ,
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1) Xerophytes o
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Plants that are adapted to live din places dwhere water is in short supply are called
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xerophytes, for e.g. succulentsoand cacti.o
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All xerophytes have adaptations m that helpm them to survive in a difficult dry environment.
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Adaptive features of xerophytes:t t
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a) Fewer stomata n
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In desert plants, there are often
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stomata than usual.
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b) Closing stomata
Plants lose most water as water vapour (transpiration), through their stomata.
However, if its stomata are closed, the plant cannot photosynthesise, because
carbon dioxide cannot diffuse into the leaf.
Stomata close when it is very hot and dry or when the plant cannot
photosynthesise anyway, such as at night.
c) Thick waxy cuticle
The leaves of desert plants are often covered with a very thick waxy cuticle
(made by the cells in the epidermis). The wax makes the leaf waterproof
therefore it prevents water loss. It also provides a shiny surface that reflects heat
and so lowers the temperature.
d) Hairy leaves
Some plants that live in dry places have hairs on their leaves. These hairs trap a
layer of moist air next to the leaf. The moist air reduces the diffusion gradient for
water vapour from the leaf into the air, so less water vapour diffuses out of the
leaf.
e) Sunken stomata on underside of leaves
In most leaves, there are more stomata on the lower surface than on the upper
surface. The lower surface is usually cooler than the upper one, so less water will
evaporate. The stomata may be sunk into deep pits in the leaf. When water
vapour diffuses out through the stomata, it collects in the air trapped in the pits.
This reduces the diffusion gradient, so less water diffuses out of the leaf.
f) Small leaves to reduce their surface area
The smaller the surface area of the leaf, the less water vapour will diffuse out of
it. Plants like cacti have leaves that are so small they are just spines. These spines
are also useful for preventing the cactus from animals. Instead of using its leaves
for photosynthesis, the cactus has chloroplasts in the outer cells in its thick stem.
g) Thickened leaves or stems which contain cells that store water
The cells deep inside the stem are adapted to be able to store water
h) Having deep or spreading roots
They usually have either very deep roots, or roots that spread a long way
sideways from where the plant is growing to be able to absorb water across a
wider area. Some have both.
2) Hydrophytes
Plants that live in very wet places, including those that live in water, are called
hydrophytes.
These plants have no problem of water shortage. They do not need adaptations to
conserve water, as desert plants do.
Adaptive features of hydrophytes:
a) Small roots
The roots of hydrophytes do not attach to the bed of the river or pond where
they grow but float freely in the water. Some hydrophytes may be attached to
the bottom, with roots that penetrate into the mud. There is no need for these
roots to grow very deep, or to spread very widely - they just need to go deep
enough to hold the plant in position.
b) Large air spaces in their stems or leaves
The stems and leaf stalks have hollow spaces in them, filled with air, which help
them to float on the top of the water where they can get plenty of light for
photosynthesis.
c) Stomata on upper surface
They may have stomata on the upper surfaces of their leaves as well as on the
lower surfaces. This is because the upper surface is in contact with the air, so this
is where the carbon dioxide comes from that the plant uses for photosynthesis
d) There is also no need to close stomata when it is hot as they have plenty of water
supply.
e) Flat and feathery leaves
Some hydrophytes, adapted to live completely under water, often have feathery
leaves that spread out easily in the water, so that each leaf gets plenty of
sunlight. They also help the plant to float and prevent damage from strong water
currents.
Selection:
1) Natural Selection
➢ Genetic variation within populations
There is variation within a population of organisms. Some of these are caused by
having different alleles of genes. Some of these variations affect the adaptive
features of organisms.
➢ Overproduction (production of many offsprings)
Within a wild population, many more offsprings are produced than will survive to
become adults.
➢ Struggle for survival
Within a population, only the individuals with best adaptive features are more likely
to survive and reproduce. This is because there is struggle for survival as the
organisms must compete for food, water, habitat (shelter) and protect themselves
from predators and diseases.
➢ Alleles that provide useful adaptations are more likely to be passed on
As only the best-adapted organisms survive and reproduce, they pass on their
advantageous alleles to the next generation.
Over time, this results in more and more of the population having these alleles. We
can say that the better adapted individuals are selected. This process is called
natural selection.
Example of natural selection
In parts of Great Britain and Ireland, many peppered moths were found. They rested on
(white) lichen covered tree trunks.
After industrial revolution, many black moths were observed.
This is because the lichen is sensitive to air pollution and could not survive. The tree trunks
were no longer covered in lichen. The black moths were better camouflaged on brown tree
trunks, therefore the population of black moths increased as they were not predated by
birds.
Selection pressure is any factor in the environment that affects the chances that
individuals with different features will survive and reproduce.
In the example above, predation by birds is the selection pressure.
Antibiotic resistance
Antibiotics are medicinal drugs that kill bacteria in the body without harming our own body
cells.
Many bacteria have became resistant to antibiotics through natural selection.
Penicillin is an antibiotic that stops bacteria from making cell walls. Bacteria become
unable to grow new cell walls and burst open.
When a person is infected with bacteria, there might be at least one bacterium that would
be resistant to antibiotics. Resistant bacteria can survive and reproduce (binary fission)
forming a whole population of identical antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
Bacteria resistant to many antibiotics including penicillin and methicillin are called MRSA
(Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus).
The more antibiotics we use, the more likely it is that antibiotic resistant population of
bacteria will arise. Reducing our use of antibiotics means that bacteria with resistance
have no selective advantage, so they are less likely to survive.
Antibiotic use is acting as a selection pressure in this example.
DNA sequence and classification
Mutation can change DNA base sequence. If this change is advantageous, natural
selection may cause this change to become more common over time in next generations.
Over time, more mutations can occur, so the DNA base sequence of a population may
become more and more different from their ancestors.
Eventually, the DNA may become so different that the population can no longer breed with
the one that it originated from.
DNA can be extracted from the nucleus of cells, and the base sequence can be studied
and compared.
o If two organisms have identical or similar DNA base sequence, they most likely
belong to same species.
o If the organisms have different DNA base sequence they most likely belong to
different species.
• If there are fewer differences, they may be closely related and share recent
common ancestor.
• If there are many differences, they are most likely distantly related and share
a distant ancestor.
2) Artificial Selection
Humans can bring about changes in living organisms, by selecting certain individuals for
breeding. The process of choosing only certain animals or plants with desirable
characteristics to breed is called artificial selection or selective breeding.
Offspring that show the desired characteristics are selected and bred together. This
selection process is repeated over many generations; these characteristics will become
the most common ones in the population giving rise to a ‘new breed’ which will reliably
show the desired characteristics in all offsprings.
Even when a particular breed has been produced, farmers will continue to use selective
breeding to enhance the characteristics that they choose.
Imagine, for example, that a farmer has a herd of cows, which he keeps for milk production.
He wants to improve his herd. He will follow these steps:
1. Choose only the cows that produce large volumes of high-quality milk
2. Choose a bull whose female relatives produce large volumes of high-quality milk.
3. Breed the chosen cows with the chosen bull.
4. Allow the calves to grow to adults. From this generation, select the cows that produce
the greatest volumes of high-quality milk, and breed them with the chosen bull (which
could be the same one, or a different one).
5. Repeat for many generations
Sometimes, the breeder may want to combine two useful characteristics. So, he might, for
example, choose to breed a cow that produces high-quality milk with a bull that is very
docile (calm and easy to handle). If he repeats this over several generations, he should be
able to produce cows that are both easy to handle, and good milk producers.
Selectively Breeding Plants
Plants are selectively bred by humans for development of many characteristics, including:
• disease resistance in food crops
• increased crop yield
• hardiness to weather conditions (e.g. drought tolerance)
• better tasting fruits
• large or unusual flowers
Selectively Breeding Animals
Animals are commonly selectively bred for various characteristics, including:
• cows, goats and sheep that produce lots of milk or meat
• chickens that lay large eggs
• sheep with good quality wool
• horses with fine features and a very fast pace
• domestic dogs that have a gentle nature
(all breeds of domestic dogs are descended from wolves)
Comparing natural selection and artificial selection
In both natural and artificial selection, only certain individuals survive and breed. However,
there are many differences between them:
NATURAL SELECTION ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
Selection pressure comes from the
Selection not influenced by environment
environment
Humans choose individuals with specific/ desired
Random mating
features to reproduce
Results in populations with desired features useful
Better adapted individuals survive and
to humans; not necessarily with better adapted
reproduce
features to ensure survival
Always produces characteristics suitable May cause decrease in fitness (ability of organisms
for the environment to survive and reproduce)
Slower / takes more time Faster / takes less time
Affects many characteristics Affects few (desired) characteristics
More genetic variation Decreases genetic variation
Occurs naturally Done for economic or aesthetic reasons
Evolution occurs No or less evolution occurs