OPTICAL SOURCES – LED PART (BEGINNER-FRIENDLY NOTES)
1. INTRODUCTION TO LEDs
LEDs are semiconductor devices that emit light when a PN junction is forward biased. Electrons and
holes recombine in the active region, releasing energy in the form of photons (light). This process is
called spontaneous emission. LEDs are widely used in optical communication due to their low cost,
high reliability, and simple drive circuitry.
2. MATERIALS USED FOR LED FABRICATION
The emitted wavelength depends on the semiconductor bandgap. Common materials include:
• GaAs (≈900 nm)
• AlGaAs (800–900 nm)
• InGaAsP (1300–1550 nm)
• InP (substrate for long-wavelength LEDs)
III–V materials are preferred because they have direct bandgaps, enabling efficient light emission.
3. BASIC LED OPERATION
Under forward bias, carriers recombine near the junction. Emission depends on:
• Radiative recombination (produces useful light)
• Nonradiative recombination (produces heat)
LED output typically has a broad spectral width (~80 nm).
4. LED POWER & EFFICIENCY
Internal quantum efficiency:
η_int = R_r / (R_r + R_nr)
Optical power is proportional to the rate of radiative recombination.
The generated optical power is directly proportional to the input current, making LEDs suitable for
analog communication.
5. LED STRUCTURES
Different structures improve radiance, coupling efficiency, and modulation bandwidth.
a) Surface Emitter LED (SLED)
• Emits light perpendicular to the junction
• Good for multimode fibers
b) Edge Emitter LED (ELED)
• Emits from the side of the chip
• Narrow beam, better fiber coupling
c) Superluminescent LED (SLD)
• High output power
• Narrow spectral width
d) Resonant Cavity LED (RC-LED)
• Contains DBR mirrors
• Higher radiance and efficiency
e) Planar LED
• Low radiance due to internal reflections
f) Dome LED
• Hemispherical dome increases light extraction
6. LED CHARACTERISTICS
• Output power increases linearly with current
• Temperature rise decreases efficiency
• Radiation pattern depends on LED geometry
• Rise time and carrier lifetime determine modulation speed
7. MODULATION BANDWIDTH
Bandwidth limited by:
• Carrier lifetime
• Doping level
• Parasitic capacitances
3 dB bandwidth:
f_3dB = 1 / (2π τ)
8. RELIABILITY OF LEDs
Two types of degradation:
• Catastrophic (sudden failure from facet damage)
• Gradual (dark line defects, increased threshold)
Degradation rate depends on activation energy and temperature.