PART–A: SIGNAL LOSS IN OPTICAL FIBERS

1. Attenuation (Transmission Loss)

(i) Basic idea
 When light travels through a fiber, its power gradually reduces due to various physical mechanisms
→ this is called attenuation.
 It limits:
o Maximum link length without repeater/amplifier.
o Power budget of the system.
► Definition (Exam line):
Attenuation is the gradual reduction in optical power as an optical signal propagates along the fiber,
expressed in dB or dB/km.
On Page-1 and 3 of your PPT, attenuation is introduced as one of the two primary transmission
characteristics (the other is dispersion).
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)

(ii) Mathematical expression

From Pg-3: the optical power at distance z is:
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
−αz
P(z )=P0 e

Where:
 P0= input optical power

 P(z )= power after distance z

 α = attenuation coefficient (in Np/km or more commonly dB/km)
In practice we use dB:
10 P
α dB /km = log ⁡10( ¿ )
z Pout

► “Attenuation coefficient gives loss per kilometer; lower value means better fiber.”
Slide also gives power ratio → dB tables and dBm concept (power referenced to 1 mW) for quick
conversions.
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)

(iii) Total attenuation components

From Pg-5–6:
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
α total=α absorption + α scattering + α bending

So total loss is sum of:

1. Material absorption losses
2. Scattering losses (linear & non-linear)
3. Bending losses (macrobend & microbend)

2. Material Absorption Losses

Material absorption converts part of the optical signal energy into heat in the glass.
► Definition:
Material absorption loss is the loss of optical power due to conversion of light energy into other forms
(mainly heat) within the fiber material.
There are two types (Pg-7–8):
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
 Intrinsic absorption
 Extrinsic absorption

2.1 Intrinsic Absorption

Intrinsic = due to the pure material itself (no impurities).
Two wavelength regions:
1. UV region – Electronic absorption
o Photons have enough energy to excite electrons in the glass to higher energy levels.
o Dominant at short wavelengths (near UV).
o Strong absorption → not used for communication.
2. IR region – Molecular vibration absorption
o Here photons interact with molecular vibrational modes (Si–O bonds in silica).
o Dominant at very long wavelengths (infrared).
The combined intrinsic absorption sets a fundamental limit at very short and very long wavelengths. That’s
why only a “window” of wavelengths (850 nm, 1310 nm, 1550 nm) is usable as shown by the attenuation
curve in the graph on Pg-15 & Pg-16.
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)

2.2 Extrinsic Absorption

Extrinsic = due to impurities added unintentionally to the glass.
Two main sources:
1. Transition metal ions (Pg-8)
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
o Examples: Fe, Cu, Ni, Cr, Mn, V etc.
o They have many energy levels inside the band gap → absorb strongly at specific
wavelengths.
o Modern glass refining technologies reduce these to about 1 part in 10¹⁰.
2. Water / Hydroxyl (OH⁻) ions
o Water dissolved in glass leads to OH⁻ groups bonded in the structure.
o OH⁻ has strong vibrational absorption peaks around ~0.95 μm, 1.25 μm, and especially ~1.39
μm; these appear as spikes in the attenuation vs wavelength curve on Pg-15.
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
► Conclusion:
Intrinsic absorption sets ultimate wavelength limits; extrinsic absorption decides practical loss inside the
windows.

3. Scattering Losses
Scattering loss happens when light is forced to change its direction due to inhomogeneities in the fiber (tiny
variations of refractive index, bubbles, density fluctuations, defects).
From Pg-9:
► “Even very small changes in refractive index are seen by the traveling beam as optical obstacles, causing
scattering and power loss.”
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
Scattering can be:
 Linear Scattering (no change of optical frequency)
 Non-linear Scattering (power dependent, frequency-shifted components)

3.1 Linear Scattering

Main types (Pg-10–12):
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
1. Rayleigh Scattering
2. Mie Scattering
(a) Rayleigh Scattering
 Caused by very small inhomogeneities (size ≪ λ) frozen into glass during fabrication.
 It is the dominant intrinsic loss in good quality fibers in the visible–near IR region (Pg-10–11).
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
 Its strength varies as:
1
αR∝ 4
λ
So, loss is very high at short wavelength and rapidly decreases at longer wavelengths.
Example values given on Pg-11:
 At 630 nm: ≈ 5.2 dB/km
 At 1000 nm: ≈ 0.8 dB/km
 At 1300 nm: ≈ 0.3 dB/km
Hence 1550 nm region has very low Rayleigh scattering and becomes a preferred low-loss window.
Physical picture:
Imagine frozen microscopic density fluctuations inside glass; light hitting these behaves like scattering by
tiny particles.

(b) Mie Scattering

 Occurs due to larger inhomogeneities whose size ≈ λ:
o Core-cladding refractive index variations
o Diameter fluctuations
o Bubbles and strains
 Described on Pg-12.
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
 Mainly forward scattering (power goes in slightly different directions but remains in forward
hemisphere).
 It can be minimized by:
o High quality fabrication
o Proper controlled drawing, cabling, and removal of imperfections.

3.2 Non-Linear Scattering

Non-linear scattering appears when optical power density is high, so the refractive index responds
nonlinearly to the field and energy is transferred between modes/frequencies. Described on Pg-13–14.
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
Two main effects:
1. Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
2. Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
(a) Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
  Interaction of light with acoustic phonons (low-frequency vibrations of the medium).
 Causes light to be scattered with a small frequency shift (Stokes/anti-Stokes) and usually in
backward direction.
 Occurs typically when launched power exceeds about 100 mW in single-mode fiber (Pg-14).
 Effects:
o Limits maximum power that can be launched.
o Can reflect power back toward transmitter → may damage devices.
 Control:
o Keep power below SBS threshold.
o Broaden the linewidth of the laser (SBS gain depends on narrow linewidth).
(b) Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
 Interaction of light with optical phonons (high-frequency vibrations) (Pg-14).
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
 Produces scattered light shifted by optical frequencies, often in forward direction.
 Threshold is higher (~1 W).
 In WDM systems, SRS can cause power transfer from shorter wavelength channels to longer
wavelength channels.
► Nonlinear scattering imposes a “ceiling” on usable optical power in long-haul systems.

4. Fiber Bending Losses

Bending a fiber disturbs the guiding condition: light that was totally internally reflected may now leak into
the cladding or radiate out.
From Pg-17–19.
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
Two types:
1. Macrobending loss
2. Microbending loss

4.1 Macrobending Loss

 Occurs when fiber is bent with large radius (few cm or more), like loops or coils.
 At the outer side of the bend, the effective path is longer and field may extend more into cladding;
some rays no longer satisfy total internal reflection and radiate out.
A critical radius of curvature Rc (Pg-18) is approximately:
2
3 n1
Rc ≈ 2 2
λ
4 π (n1−n2)
If actual bend radius R< R c→ significant loss.
Reduce macrobending loss by:
 Avoid tight bends when laying fiber.
 Using fibers with larger NA or higher relative index difference Δ (stronger confinement).
 Using operating wavelength as low as practical (shorter λ → tighter confinement).

4.2 Microbending Loss

 Caused by small, random, microscopic bends on fiber axis due to:
o Non-uniform lateral pressure
o Manufacturing imperfections
o Rough handling during cabling
 Shown in the diagram on Pg-19, where tiny corrugations of the core cause coupling of light from
guided modes to radiation modes.
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
Reduction:
 Use of compressible buffer/jacket to smooth out small pressure variations.
 Proper cable design and controlled manufacturing.
► Macrobending = visible big bends; microbending = invisible tiny ripples.

5. Kerr Effect
The Kerr effect is a nonlinear optical effect where the refractive index of the fiber changes with the
intensity of the light:
n=n0 +n 2 I

Where
 n 0: linear refractive index

 n2 : nonlinear index coefficient

 I : optical intensity
Consequences in fibers:
 Self-Phase Modulation (SPM): phase of a pulse is changed by its own intensity → spectral
broadening.
 Cross-Phase Modulation (XPM): phase of one channel modified by intensity of other channels in
WDM systems.
 Four-Wave Mixing (FWM): new frequency components generated by mixing of three other waves.
These effects distort signals at high power and in long-haul DWDM links, and must be considered when
designing modern high-capacity networks.
PART–B: DISPERSION IN OPTICAL FIBERS

1. Introduction to Dispersion
While attenuation reduces amplitude, dispersion distorts shape of the optical pulse.
From Pg-21–23:
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
 A narrow input pulse spreads in time as it propagates → pulse broadening.
 Over long distances, broadened pulses overlap, causing inter-symbol interference (ISI).
 Dispersion is measured in ns/km for pulse broadening or ps/(nm·km) as dispersion parameter.
► Definition:
Dispersion is the phenomenon by which different components of an optical signal travel at different
velocities in the fiber, causing pulse broadening and limiting the bandwidth.
Relation between allowed bit rate BT and pulse broadening τ : Pg-22
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
1
BT ≤
2τ
So more dispersion → smaller max bit rate for a given fiber length.

2. Classification of Dispersion
From Pg-23–24:
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
Main types:
1. Intermodal (Modal) dispersion – in multimode fibers.
2. Intramodal / Chromatic dispersion (even in single mode)
o Material dispersion
o Waveguide dispersion
In advanced systems we also consider Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD) (later).

3. Intermodal (Modal) Dispersion

3.1 Concept
  Only present in multimode fibers (MMF) such as multimode step index (MSI) and multimode
graded index (MGI).
 Different guided modes (different ray paths) have different optical path lengths and often different
velocities → arrive at different times.
In an MSI fiber (diagram Pg-25):
 Axial ray travels straight, shortest path → arrives earliest.
 High-angle rays reflect multiple times → longer path → arrive later.
The pulse that was narrow at input becomes a wider pulse at output.
► “Intermodal dispersion is the pulse spreading that results from different propagation times of various
modes in a multimode fiber.”
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
3.2 Effect on bandwidth
 Pulse broadening grows linearly with distance.
 Therefore, bandwidth-distance product of MMF is limited, typically ~20 MHz·km as mentioned on
Pg-24.
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
Example:
 If bandwidth-distance product is 20 MHz·km and we use 2 km length → max bandwidth ≈ 10 MHz.

3.3 Intermodal Dispersion in MSI vs MGI

From Pg-27 and Pg-37:
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
 Multimode Step Index Fiber
o Highest modal dispersion because path lengths of different modes differ a lot.
o Output pulse is heavily broadened.
 Multimode Graded Index Fiber
o Core has a parabolic refractive index profile: larger n at center, smaller near edges.
o Rays travelling longer geometric paths (near core-cladding boundary) pass through regions of
lower refractive index → higher velocity.
o So delay differences are compensated → much smaller modal dispersion (reduced by factor ≈
100).
 Single Mode Step Index Fiber
o Only one mode exists → no intermodal dispersion.

3.4 How to reduce intermodal dispersion?

 1. Use graded index multimode fiber instead of step index.
2. Use single-mode fiber (SMF) where only one mode propagates.
3. Use smaller core diameter and lower NA (fewer modes).

4. Intramodal / Chromatic Dispersion

This type of dispersion occurs even for single mode fibers, because of wavelength dependence.
From Pg-28–31:
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
The optical source (LED/laser) is not perfectly monochromatic; it emits a range of wavelengths (spectral
width Δλ). Each wavelength component experiences slightly different velocity in the fiber.
Total chromatic dispersion is made of:
1. Material Dispersion
2. Waveguide Dispersion

4.1 Material Dispersion

Origin:
 Refractive index n of silica varies with wavelength λ (dispersion curve shown on Pg-30–31).
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
 So group velocity v g=c /n g also varies with λ.
 Different λ components travel with different group velocities → arrival time difference.
Pulse broadening due to material dispersion (Pg-31):
2
L 2 d n
Δ τ mat = Δλ λ ∣ 2∣
c dλ
Often normalized as material dispersion parameter:
Δ τ mat
D M= [ ps/(nm⋅ km)]
LΔλ
Key point from curves:
 Material dispersion in silica is zero around λ ≈ 1.3 μm (zero-dispersion wavelength ZMD).
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
 For λ < 1.3 μm → one sign; for λ > 1.3 μm → opposite sign.
That’s why standard SMF was originally optimized at 1310 nm: minimum dispersion.

4.2 Waveguide Dispersion

Origin:
  Light in a single-mode fiber is not confined only to the core; part of the field exists in the cladding.
 The fraction of power in the core vs cladding depends on wavelength (via normalized frequency V
), so group velocity of the mode varies with λ not only due to material but also due to waveguide
geometry.
From Pg-33–34:
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
 Waveguide dispersion becomes significant in single-mode fibers especially in region 1.0–1.6 μm
where material dispersion is small.
 Negligible in multimode fibers and outside single-mode regime.
Normalized parameter:
Δ τ wg
D WG = [ ps /(nm⋅ km)]
LΔλ
We usually don’t memorize exact expression, only that:
► “Waveguide dispersion is controlled by core radius, refractive index difference Δ, and operating
wavelength; and is engineered to cancel material dispersion at desired wavelength.”

4.3 Total Chromatic Dispersion

From Pg-35–36:
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
Dchromatic =D M + DWG

Graph on Pg-35 shows:

 Material dispersion curve D M crosses zero at 1.3 μm.

 Waveguide dispersion curve DWGis of opposite sign.

 Their sum gives total dispersion.
Important observations:
1. Minimum total dispersion (≈ 0) at 1.3 μm in standard SMF.
2. Minimum attenuation (~0.2 dB/km) at 1.55 μm, but dispersion ~15 ps/(nm·km) there.
So we want special fibers where zero dispersion is shifted to 1.55 μm → leads us to dispersion-modified
SMFs.

5. Overall (Total) Fiber Dispersion in MMF & SMF

From Pg-36–37:
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
5.1 In Multimode Fibers (MMF)
Total dispersion includes:
DT =Dintermodal + D M + DWG

But in MMFs waveguide dispersion is very small; and intermodal dispersion dominates so strongly that
chromatic terms are often ignored.
Consequences:
 MMFs suitable for short distance, lower bit rate links (LAN, premises wiring).
 Typical bandwidth-distance product ≈ 10–20 MHz·km.
5.2 In Single Mode Fibers (SMF)
No intermodal dispersion, so:
DT =D M + D WG=Dchromatic

Here:
 Bandwidth mainly limited by source spectral width Δλ and chromatic dispersion.
 We can engineer D_M and D_WG to get:
o zero dispersion at target λ, or
o very low dispersion over a wide band (DFF, later).

6. Dispersion-Modified Single Mode Fibers

Motivation:
 We want to use 1550 nm window for long haul systems because attenuation is minimum there
(~0.2 dB/km) but dispersion is not minimum.
 So we redesign the fiber profile such that total dispersion at 1550 nm becomes small.
From Pg-39–44:
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)

6.1 Dispersion Shifted Fiber (DSF)

► Definition:
A dispersion shifted fiber is a single-mode fiber whose zero-dispersion wavelength is shifted from 1.3 μm to
around 1.55 μm by tailoring waveguide dispersion.
How it’s done:
 Adjust core diameter, relative index difference Δ, and refractive index profile so that:
D M (1.55 μm)+ DWG (1.55 μm)≈ 0

Result:
 At 1550 nm: low loss + nearly zero dispersion → ideal for single-channel high bit rate systems.
Figure on Pg-40 shows total dispersion curve of DSF crossing zero near 1.55 μm (compared with standard
SMF).
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)

6.2 Dispersion Flattened Fiber (DFF)

► Definition:
A dispersion flattened fiber is a single-mode fiber designed to have very low dispersion (e.g., 0–2
ps/(nm·km)) over a wide wavelength range, typically 1.3–1.6 μm.
Why needed?
 For WDM/DWDM systems where many channels at different wavelengths are used, we want all
channels to experience similar low dispersion.
How it’s achieved (Pg-40–42):
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
 Use multi-clad structures (double, triple, quadruple clad).
 Use complex graded index cores (triangular, Gaussian, depressed cladding, W-profile, etc.) as shown
on Pg-41–42.
 Maintain strong control over dimensions (requires high manufacturing precision).
Trade-offs:
 Often slightly higher attenuation (~0.3 dB/km) and more bending sensitivity, but acceptable for high-
capacity networks.
Pg-44 summarises total dispersion for standard SMF, DSF and DFF in one graph.
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)

7. Polarization & Fiber Birefringence

From Pg-45–50.
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
7.1 Polarization in Fibers
 Light in fiber can be decomposed into two orthogonal polarization states.
 In an ideal perfectly circular, perfectly symmetric SMF, these two polarizations would propagate
with same velocity.
In practice, due to slight asymmetries (elliptical core, stress, bending), the two orthogonal polarizations see
slightly different refractive indices:
 n xfor HE❑11(x) mode

 n yfor HE❑11(y) mode

This phenomenon is birefringence.

7.2 Modal Birefringence & Beat Length

Modal birefringence:
 B=∣ nx −n y ∣

Beat length Lb: (Pg-46–47)

λ
Lb =
B
 Over one beat length, one polarization mode slips ahead of the other by one full cycle (2π phase
difference).
 If light excites both polarizations, at intervals of Lbthe polarization state repeats along length.

Example on Pg-49: for a beat length of 10 cm at 1300 nm, birefringence B=1.3 ×10−5.
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)

7.3 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

Due to birefringence, the two polarization modes have slightly different group velocities → one arrives
earlier (fast axis), one later (slow axis).
The differential group delay (DGD) causes:
 Pulse broadening
 Random polarization-dependent distortion
Key points (Pg-49–50):
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
 PMD increases with square root of fiber length.
 It is a serious issue at very high bit rates (>10 Gb/s) over long distances.
 PMD is random along the fiber and varies in time with temperature, stress etc.

7.4 Polarization Maintaining Fibers (PMF)

To control polarization:
 High birefringence (HB) fibers deliberately introduce strong birefringence (e.g., elliptical core,
PANDA fibers with stress rods).
 Idea: One polarization is strongly guided; the orthogonal one is strongly attenuated, so the fiber
maintains input polarization state.
Pg-47 mentions PANDA fibers (Polarization-Maintaining and Absorption-Reducing), which have stress-
applying parts embedded in cladding to create large birefringence.
Unit-02 [Link] pdf (1)
► PM fibers are used where a fixed polarization state is needed, e.g., in coherent systems, sensors, and
interferometers.

🔚 QUICK REVISION SUMMARY (for last-minute reading)

You can memorise these compressed bullets for 10-mark answers:
 Attenuation: power loss (dB/km) due to absorption + scattering + bending. Limits span length.
 Material Absorption: intrinsic (UV electronic, IR vibrational) + extrinsic (metal ions, OH⁻).
 Linear Scattering: Rayleigh (∝1/λ⁴, main intrinsic loss), Mie (larger defects).
 Nonlinear Scattering: SBS (acoustic phonons, backward, ≈100 mW), SRS (optical phonons,
forward, ≈1 W).
 Bending Loss: macrobend (large visible bends, critical radius), microbend (tiny irregularities, cured
by buffer).
 Kerr Effect: n = n₀ + n₂I → SPM, XPM, FWM at high power.
 Dispersion: pulse broadening → ISI → limits BT ≤ 1/(2 τ ).
 Intermodal: only MMF, due to different mode paths; worst in MSI, reduced in MGI, zero in SMF.
 Material Dispersion: n(λ) of glass; zero around 1.3 μm.
 Waveguide Dispersion: mode field distribution vs λ; engineered via core radius & Δ.
 Total Dispersion: MMF → modal + material (+ small waveguide). SMF → material + waveguide
only.
 DM-SMFs: DSF (zero-dispersion at 1550 nm), DFF (low dispersion over 1.3–1.6 μm).
 Birefringence & PMD: nx ≠ ny → beat length, DGD, PMD ~ √L; PM fibers (e.g., PANDA)
preserve polarization.