Unit 2

Eco system
An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals and other organisms, as
well as weather and landscape, work together to form a bubble of life. Ecosystems
contain biotic (living) factors, as well as abiotic (non-living) factors. Biotic factors
include plants, animals and other organisms. Abiotic factors
include rocks, temperature and humidity.
Every part of an ecosystem depends on every other part, directly or indirectly. A
change in the temperature of an ecosystem often affects what plants grow there, for
instance. Animals that depend on plants for food and shelter have to adapt to the
changes, move to another ecosystem or perish.
Types of Ecosystems
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean,
spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystems:
a. Terrestrial Ecosystem
b. Aquatic Ecosystem

a. Terrestrial Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different
types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are
as follows:
1. Forest Ecosystems
2. Grassland Ecosystems
3. Tundra Ecosystems
4. Desert Ecosystem
1. Forest Ecosystem A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals
and microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the
environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are
the major carbon sink.
2. Grassland Ecosystem In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated
by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands, savannah grasslands are some
of the examples of grassland ecosystems.
3. Tundra Ecosystem Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in
cold climates or where rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for
most of the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops is tundra type.
4. Desert Ecosystem Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions
with very little rainfall. The days are hot and the nights are cold.
b. Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further
divided into two types, namely:
1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
● Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers,
streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine
ecosystem.
● Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial
salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.
Structure of eco system
Functions of an Ecosystem
Ecosystem function is the capacity of natural processes and components to provide
goods and services that satisfy human needs, either directly or indirectly. Ecosystem
functions are subset of ecological processes and ecosystem structures. Each
function is the result of the natural processes of the total ecological sub-system of
which it is a part. Natural processes, in turn, are the result of complex interactions
between biotic (living organisms) and abiotic (chemical and physical) components
of ecosystems through the universal driving forces of matter and energy.
There are four primary groups of ecosystem functions
(1) regulatory functions,
(2) habitat functions,
(3) production functions and
(4) information functions.
General characterization of ecosystem functions are:
(1) Regulatory functions: this group of functions relates to the capacity of natural
and semi-natural ecosystems to regulate essential ecological processes and life
support systems through bio-geochemical cycles and other biospheric processes. In
addition to maintaining the ecosystem (and biosphere health), these regulatory
functions provide many services that have direct and indirect benefits to humans
(i.e., clean air, water and soil, and biological control services).
(2) Habitat functions: natural ecosystems provide refuge and a reproduction habitat
to wild plants and animals and thereby contribute to the (in situ) conservation of
biological and genetic diversity and the evolutionary process.
(3) Production functions: Photosynthesis and nutrient uptake by autotrophs converts
energy, carbon dioxide, water and nutrients into a wide variety of carbohydrate
structures which are then used by secondary producers to create an even larger
variety of living biomass. This broad diversity in carbohydrate structures provides
many ecosystem goods for human consumption, ranging from food and raw
materials to energy resources and genetic material.
(4) Information functions: Since most of human evolution took place within the
context of an undomesticated habitat, natural ecosystems contribute to the
maintenance of human health by providing opportunities for reflection, spiritual
enrichment, cognitive development, recreation and aesthetic experience.
Energy flow
Energy flow is the process by which energy is transferred through an ecosystem,
beginning with sunlight captured by producers (like plants) and moving up through
consumers (herbivores, carnivores) via feeding relationships. Biological activities
require energy which ultimately comes from the sun. Solar energy is transformed into
chemical energy by a process of photosynthesis this energy is stored in plant tissue
and then transformed into heat energy during metabolic activities. Thus in biological
world the energy flows from the sun to plants and then to all heterotrophic
organisms. The flow of energy is unidirectional and non-cyclic.
This one-way flow of energy is governed by laws of thermodynamics which states
that: (a) Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but may be transformed
from one form to another (b) During the energy transfer there is degradation of
energy from a concentrated form (mechanical, chemical, or electrical etc.) to a
dispersed form (heat). No energy transformation is 100 % efficient; it is always
accompanied by some dispersion or loss of energy in the form heat. Therefore,
biological systems including ecosystems must be supplied with energy on a
continuous Basis.
Food chain
In food chain each organism eats the smaller organisms and is eaten by the larger
one. All those organisms which are interlinked with each other through food to
gather constitute the ecosystem.
The different levels in a food chain are called tropic levels, Each food chain has three
main tropic levels: - Producer level, Consumer level, and decomposer level. If any of
the intermediate stage of the food chain is removed, the succeeding links of the food
chain will be affected.
Types of Food Chains:
a) Grazing Food Chain: This type of food chain starts from living green plants goes
to grazing herbivores and onto carnivores. Ecosystem with such type of food chain
directly 34 depends upon the solar energy for their food requirements. Most of the
ecosystem in nature follows this type of food chain.
b) Detritus food Chain: This type of food chain goes from dead organic matter onto
microorganisms and then to the organisms feeding on detritus and their predators.
Such ecosystems are less dependent on direct solar energy.
c) Parasitic Food Chain: This type of food chain starts from big hosts and ends with
parasitic organisms.
Components of a Food Chain
1. Producers: Organisms that create their own food, usually
through photosynthesis (like plants or algae), forming the base of the food
chain. 
2. Consumers: Organisms that obtain energy by eating other organisms.
o Primary Consumers: Herbivores that eat producers (e.g., a rabbit eating
grass).
o Secondary Consumers: Carnivores that eat primary consumers (e.g., a snake
eating a rabbit).
o Tertiary Consumers/Apex Predators: Carnivores that eat secondary
consumers; they are at the top of the chain with no natural predators. 
3. Decomposers: Organisms like fungi and bacteria that break down dead
organic matter, returning nutrients to the soil for producers to use. 

How a Food Chain Works

1. Energy from the Sun: The sun provides energy, which producers capture to
create food.
2. Nutrient Transfer: This energy and nutrients are passed to the next trophic
level when an organism consumes another.
3. Energy Loss: Not all energy is transferred; a significant amount is lost at
each step, which limits the length of most food chains to about four or five
links.
4. Cycles of Life: When organisms die, decomposers break them down, making
nutrients available for new producers, thus completing the cycle. 
FOOD WEB:
It is a complex network of interconnecting and overlapping food chains showing
feeding relationships within a community. A food chain shows
how matter and energy from food are transferred from one organism to another,
whereas a food web illustrates how food chains intertwine in an ecosystem. Food
webs also demonstrate that most organisms consume or are consumed by more
than one species, which food chains often do not show. Under natural condition of
the linear arrangement of food chain hardly occurs and they remain interconnected
with each other through different types of organisms at different levels Such an
interconnected and interlocking pattern of food chain is known as food web.
Structure
A food web's structure consists of trophic levels (producers, consumers, and
decomposers) and interconnected food chains that illustrate the flow of energy
through an ecosystem.
Key Components of a Food Web
● Nodes: Individual species or groups of species within the food web act as
nodes. 
● Links: Arrows or lines represent the direction of energy flow, showing who
eats whom. 
 ● Trophic Levels: These are the feeding positions in the food web. 
a)Producers (First Trophic Level): Organisms that make their own food, usually through
photosynthesis, like plants and algae. 
b)Consumers (Second Trophic Level and Higher): Organisms that consume others for
energy. 
● Primary Consumers (Herbivores): Eat producers. 
● Secondary Consumers (Carnivores/Omnivores): Eat primary
consumers. 
● Tertiary Consumers: Eat secondary consumers. 
C) Decomposers: Organisms like bacteria and fungi that break down dead
organic matter and waste, returning nutrients to the environment. 
How the Structure Works
1. Energy Flow: Sunlight (or chemicals in some environments) provides energy
to producers. 
2. Energy Transfer: This energy is passed up the food web as one organism
consumes another. 
3. Interconnectedness: A food web is a complex network of many overlapping
food chains, illustrating that most organisms consume and are consumed by
multiple species, rather than being confined to a single food chain. 
4. Bottom-Up Control: The abundance of organisms at higher trophic levels is
often determined by the productivity and abundance of populations at lower
trophic levels, like producers. 
Example of Structure 
● Producers: Algae in an ocean ecosystem.
● Primary Consumers: Zooplankton that eat algae.
● Secondary Consumers: Small fish that eat zooplankton.
● Tertiary Consumers: Larger fish that eat the smaller fish.
● Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi that break down dead organisms,
releasing nutrients for the algae.

Difference Between Food Chain and Food web

Aspect Food Chain Food Web

 A sequence that shows the A complex network that depicts
direct transfer of energy multiple feeding relationships
between organisms through between organisms in an
Definition consumption. ecosystem.
Linear and straightforward, Intricate and reticulate, showing
Structure illustrating one pathway of numerous connections and
energy flow at a time. pathways of energy flow.

Relatively simple, with each Highly complex, with multiple

Complexity organism connected to the links between different trophic
next along a single line. levels and species.

Represents a simplified Provides a comprehensive view

Representation version, ideal for of all the possible feeding
of Ecosystem understanding basic relationships and
predator-prey relationships. interdependencies.

Less flexible, as it does not More adaptable, showing how

Flexibility in account for changes in the organisms can switch between
Ecology ecosystem or the impact of food sources and maintain
losing a species. ecosystem stability.

More robust, as multiple

Generally less stable; if one connections mean the
Stability link in the chain is removed, ecosystem can better withstand
it can collapse. changes or losses.

Offers basic ecological Offers extensive ecological

Ecological insights and is easier to insights, revealing the
Insight understand for educational complexity and dynamic nature
purposes. of ecosystems.

Useful for illustrating clear,

Use in direct relationships in Essential for understanding and
Ecological controlled environments or managing biodiversity in large or
Management smaller ecosystems. complex ecosystems.

Forest ecosystem with plants

Grass Grasshopper being eaten by several
Examples herbivores, which are in turn
Frog Snake Eagle
eaten by various carnivores.

Trophic structure
Trophic structure refers to the way in which organisms in an ecosystem are
organized based on their feeding relationships — essentially, who eats whom. It
shows how energy and nutrients flow through an ecosystem, from the bottom
(producers) to the top (apex predators).
trophic structure helps ecologists in understanding:
● Predict the impact of removing or adding species (like invasive species).
● Manage ecosystems and conservation efforts.
● Understand energy flow and nutrient cycling.

Trophic Levels:
1. Primary Producers (1st Trophic Level)
These are autotrophs like plants, algae, and some bacteria. They produce energy
through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
2. Primary Consumers (2nd Trophic Level)
Herbivores that eat the primary producers (e.g., deer, insects, zooplankton).
3. Secondary Consumers (3rd Trophic Level)
Carnivores that eat herbivores (e.g., snakes, small fish, frogs).
4. Tertiary Consumers (4th Trophic Level)
Carnivores that eat other carnivores (e.g., hawks, large fish, lions).
5. Quaternary Consumers (5th Trophic Level and beyond) (not always present)
Top predators with few or no natural predators (e.g., killer whales, polar bears).
6. Decomposers and Detritivores
Break down dead organisms and waste (e.g., fungi, bacteria, earthworms). Not in a
strict trophic level, but essential for recycling nutrients.
Example: Grassland Ecosystem
1. Primary Producers
● Examples: Grass, shrubs, and other green plants
● Role: Use sunlight to make their own food through photosynthesis.
2. Primary Consumers
● Examples: Grasshoppers, rabbits, deer
● Role: Herbivores that eat the producers (plants).
3. Secondary Consumers
● Examples: Frogs, snakes, small birds
● Role: Carnivores that eat herbivores (e.g., a snake eats a rabbit).
4. Tertiary Consumers
● Examples: Hawks, foxes
 ● Role: Top predators that eat secondary consumers (e.g., hawk eats a snake).
5. Decomposers:
● Examples: Fungi, bacteria, earthworms
● Role: Break down dead plants and animals, returning nutrients to the soil.
Energy Pyramid (Trophic Levels):
Hawk (Tertiary Consumer)
!
Snake (Secondary Consumer)
!
Grasshopper (Primary Consumer)
!
Grass (Producer)
Food Chain Example (Linear View):
Grass Grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk

Concept of productivity in an ecosystem

In ecology, productivity is the rate at which new organic matter (biomass) is
generated within an ecosystem, essentially measuring energy flow. This is expressed
as a quantity of mass or energy per unit area over a specific time, like grams per
square meter per year. There are two main types: primary productivity, where
producers like plants convert energy into biomass through photosynthesis,
and secondary productivity, which is the rate at which consumers create new
biomass by consuming other organisms. 
Why Productivity Matters
● Foundation of the Food Web: 
Productivity, particularly primary productivity, forms the base of the food web by
producing the organic matter that all other organisms, or higher trophic levels, rely on
for energy. 
● Indicator of Ecosystem Health: 
The productivity of an ecosystem can indicate its overall health and functioning,
showing how well it captures and converts energy. 
● Comparisons: 
Measuring productivity allows ecologists to compare the efficiency of different
ecosystems, such as a forest versus a desert. 
Types of Productivity
1. Primary Productivity:
o This is the rate at which producers (mainly plants) convert sunlight into
chemical energy through photosynthesis to create organic matter. 
 o It is the energy available to the entire ecosystem, making it the
foundation for all life. 
o It is expressed in units of mass per unit area per unit time (e.g., grams of
carbon per square meter per year). 
2. Secondary Productivity:
o This is the rate at which consumers (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores)
convert the organic matter from producers and other consumers into
their own biomass. 
o It represents the flow of energy and biomass through the food chain
from one trophic level to the next. 
o It is influenced by the transfer of organic compounds from one organism
to another through feeding. 
Factors Influencing Productivity
Several factors influence an ecosystem's productivity: 
● Solar Energy: The primary source of energy for most ecosystems. 
● Nutrient Availability: Essential minerals, especially nitrogen, are
crucial for plant growth and productivity. 
● Water: Adequate moisture content is vital for plant life and
photosynthesis. 
● Temperature: Optimal temperatures are needed for biochemical
reactions and plant growth. 
● Human Impacts: Activities like land use change, pollution,
overexploitation, and the introduction of invasive species can
significantly reduce an ecosystem's productivity. 
Biogeochemical cycles
Biogeochemical cycles are the natural pathways through which essential elements
and compounds (like water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus) move through the
biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere.
These cycles ensure the recycling of nutrients necessary for life.
Types of Biogeochemical Cycles
They are classified into three main types based on the main reservoir (storage
location) of the element:
1. Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)
It is neither purely gaseous nor sedimentary — it's a physical cycle involving water
movement.
Steps:
1. Evaporation – Water changes from liquid to vapour from oceans, lakes.
2. Transpiration – Plants release water vapour.
3. Condensation – Water vapour forms clouds.
4. Precipitation – Water falls as rain, snow, etc.
5. Runoff/Infiltration – Water returns to oceans or seeps into the ground.
Importance:
● Drives all other cycles (e.g., helps move nutrients).
● Regulates climate and supports all life.
2. Gaseous Cycles
It Involve elements whose main reservoir is the atmosphere (or ocean surface for
CO₂).
Examples:
a. Carbon Cycle
● Reservoir: Atmosphere (CO₂)
● Key Processes:
o Photosynthesis (CO₂ glucose in plants)
o Respiration (glucose CO₂ in animals)
o Combustion (burning fossil fuels releases CO₂)
o Decomposition
b. Nitrogen Cycle
● Reservoir: Atmosphere (N₂ ~78%)
● Key Processes:
oNitrogen fixation (by bacteria or lightning)
oNitrification (NH₄⁺ NO₃⁻)
oAssimilation (plants absorb nitrates)
oDenitrification (NO₃⁻ N₂ gas)
c. Oxygen Cycle
● Tied to carbon cycle
● Produced in photosynthesis, consumed in respiration and combustion
Importance:
● Fast cycling
 ● Essential for life (carbon in all organisms, nitrogen in proteins/DNA)
3. Sedimentary Cycles
It is the main reservoir is the Earth's crust (rocks and soil).
Examples:
a. Phosphorus Cycle
● Reservoir: Rocks, soil minerals
● Key Processes:
o Weathering releases phosphate (PO₄³⁻)
o Absorbed by plants eaten by animals
o Returns to soil via waste/decomposition
o No atmospheric phase (unlike carbon/nitrogen)
b. Sulphur Cycle
● Reservoir: Rocks, volcanic emissions
● Key Processes:
o Weathering, volcanic release SO₂
o Enters food chain via plants
o Returns through decay or fossil fuel burning (acid rain component)
Importance:
● Slower cycling
● Crucial for DNA, ATP (phosphorus), proteins (sulphur)
Cycle Example Spe Atmospheric
Main Reservoir
Type Elements ed Phase

Hydrologic Oceans,
al atmosphere Water (H₂O) Fast Yes

Gaseous Atmosphere Carbon, Nitrogen Fast Yes

Sedimenta Phosphorus, Slo

Earth's crust Usually no
ry Sulphur w

Biological Invasion
A biological invasion (also called an invasive species invasion) happens when a non-
native species (plant, animal, microbe) is introduced into a new environment — either
accidentally or intentionally — and it spreads rapidly, outcompetes native species,
and disrupts the ecosystem.
Characteristics
● Fast reproduction
● High adaptability
● No natural predators in the new environment
● Outcompete native species for food, space, and resources
Impacts of Biological Invasions on the Environment
1. Loss of Biodiversity
● Invasive species often outcompete or prey on native species, leading to:
o Local extinctions
o Reduced genetic diversity
● Example: Nile perch introduced to Lake Victoria caused extinction of
hundreds of native fish species (especially cichlids).
2. Disruption of Ecosystem Processes
Invasive species can alter Nutrient cycles, Water availability, Soil composition. For
example: Invasive plant Lantana camera changes soil chemistry and blocks sunlight
for native plants.
3. Agricultural Damage
● Invasive pests and weeds reduce crop yield and quality.
● Increased need for pesticides and herbicides.
● Example: Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) damages maize crops in
Africa and Asia.
4. Threat to Aquatic Ecosystems
● Invasive aquatic species clog waterways, alter food webs, and damage
fisheries.
● Example: Water hyacinth clogs rivers and lakes in India and Africa, reducing
oxygen and killing fish.
5. Spread of Diseases
● Some invasive species carry pathogens or parasites harmful to native
wildlife or even humans.
● Example: Introduction of the American grey squirrel in the UK spread the
squirrel pox virus to native red squirrels.
6. Economic Costs
● Billions of dollars spent globally on Control and management, Agricultural
losses , Infrastructure damage.
 ● Example: Invasive mussels in North America (e.g., zebra mussel) clog water
intake pipes, costing industries millions.
Control and Management Strategies
● Prevention: Stop entry via quarantine, inspection, and regulations.
● Early detection: Monitor ecosystems for new species.
● Mechanical removal: Cutting, trapping, etc.
● Biological control: Introduce natural predators (carefully).
● Public awareness: Educate communities about risks.