Sajad Ahmad Mir

Chapter 1

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY
Sajad Ahmad Mir
1. Explain the concept and nature of Psychology?
The discipline of Psychology gets birth from the discipline of Philosophy. The word
‘psychology’ has its origin in two Greek words ‘psyche’ and ‘logos’. The word ‘psyche’ in
Greek language refers to ‘spirit’ or ‘soul’ and the word ‘logos’ refers to ‘discourse’ or ‘study’.
During earlier times it was considered as a discipline which deals with the study of soul. Since
soul is a domain of philosophy and difficult to understand. Therefore, the meaning of
psychology shifted from soul to mind, then mind to consciousness and finally consciousness to
behaviour (human and animal behaviour). However, now-a-days psychology is best defined as a
science which studies mental processes, experiences and behaviour in different contexts. Let’s
understand the concept of psychology in a bit detailed manner:
(A) Study of experience
Psychologists study a variety of human experiences which are mainly personal or private in
nature. Such experiences may range from experiences of dream to conscious life experiences and
even may include experiences when the consciousness is altered through meditation or use of
psychedelic drugs. The study of such experiences helps the psychologist to understand the
personal world of the individual.
(B) Study of mental processes
Psychology as the study of mental processes tries to investigate the activities happening in the
brain which are primarily non physiological in nature. These mental processes include
perception, learning, remembering and thinking. These are internal mental activities which are
not directly observed but inferred from the behavioural activities of the person. For example, we
can say that somebody is thinking if he or she displays certain activities related to finding
solution to a mathematical problem assigned to him or her.
(C) Study of behaviour
The range of behaviours studied in psychology is very broad. It includes simple reflexes (e.g.
eye blinking), common response patterns such as talking to friends, verbal reports about feelings
and internal states and complex behaviours such as handling computers, playing piano and
addressing a crowd. These behaviours are either observed directly through naked eyes or are
measured through instruments. They are generally exhibited verbally or nonverbally (e.g. facial
expression) when an individual reacts to a stimulus in a given situation.
2. Psychology – How Thinkers View It?/ Definitions of Psychology
 Sajad Ahmad Mir

 Woodworth: Psychology is the science of the activities of individual in relation to the

environment
 Cruze: Psychology is the science of human behaviour and experience.
 Guilford: Psychology is the science of mental activity of an organism.
 Charles E. Skinner: Psychology deals with the responses to any and every kind of
situation that life presents. By responses or behaviour is meant all forms of processes,
adjustments, activities, and experiences of the organism.
 Crow & Crow: Psychology is the study of the human behavior and the human
relationships.

3. Differentiate between Mind and Brain.

 Brain has a physical structure and location, whereas mind doesn’t.
 Brain activity can be observed by using different techniques of brain imaging, however,
how mind works cannot be observed.
 Brain is a biological structure present since birth whereas, Mind emerges and
evolves as our interactions and experiences in this world get dynamically organized in
the form of a system which is responsible for the occurrence of various mental processes.
 How brain functions can be observed and measured on the other hand how mind
functions can only be assessed by clues received from brain activities.

4. Psychology as a Discipline
 It seeks to understand and explain how the mind works and how different mental
processes result in different behaviours.
 Psychologists seek to minimize personal biases in their explanation of behavior and
experiences, making their analysis scientific and objective.
 Psychology seeks to study and understand mental processes, experiences and behavior in
a systematic and verifiable manner.
 Psychology has contributed to biological (neuroscience) and physical (computer
sciences) which has led to inception of development of MRI and EEG etc. and in IT to
the development of Artificial Intelligence.
 Psychology, on one hand considers itself as a discipline, which focuses largely on
biological principles to explain human behaviour. The aim of the
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researcher is to know the cause and effect relationship so that a prediction of the behavioural
phenomenon can be made and accordingly behaviour can be controlled if required.
5. Psychology as a Natural Science
 Psychology has roots in philosophy. Over the period of development, Psychology has
grown by following what is called hypothetico-deductive model. The model suggests
that:
o Scientific advancement can take place if you have a theory to explain a
phenomenon. Theory is nothing else but a set of statements about how a certain
complex phenomenon can be explained with the help of propositions which are
interrelated.
o Based on a theory, scientists deduce or propose a hypothesis that offers a
tentative explanation of how a certain phenomenon takes place.
o The hypothesis then is tested and proved true or false based on empirical data
that one has gathered. The theory is revised if data gathered point in a different
direction than the one suggested by the hypothesis.
 By following the above model a lot of theories of learning, memory, motivation and etc.
has been established, and the model is efficient till date.
6. Psychology as a Social Science
 Psychology is recognized more as a social science because it studies the behaviour of
human beings in their socio-cultural contexts. Humans are not only influenced by their
socio-cultural contexts, they also create them. Psychology as a social science discipline
focuses on humans as social beings.
 Culture plays an important role when it comes in defining similarities and individual
differences. Psychology deals with human behaviour and experience in the context of
their society and culture.
 Thus, psychology is a social science with focus on the individuals and communities in
relation to their socio-cultural and physical environment.
7. Explain how mind and behavior are connected.
Mind does not have a location unlike brain but mind cannot exist without brain as well. However
various researches have proven in spite of damage to different parts of the brain yet “mind”
remains intact.
Recent studies in affective neurosciences have shown that use of mental imagery that is images
generated by a person by using his/her mind have been helpful in curing many kinds of phobia,
similarly positive visual imagery also can be used to relieve or lessen the effect of illnesses. E.g., in
a study, a person with blocked arteries was made to visualize that blood was flowing through her/
his blocked arteries. After practicing this over a period of time, significant relief was obtained by
these patients as the degree of blockage became significantly less.
A new discipline called Psychoneuroimmunology has emerged which emphasizes the role played
by the mind in strengthening the immune system.
 8. What is behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behaviour.
Behaviour is a response or a reaction of an individual or an activity in which the individual is
engaged in. It is the result of a stimulus in the environment or an internal change. Behaviour refers
to all the actions or reactions of an organism (person or animal) in response to external or internal
stimuli. The behaviour of an individual, in a broad sense, refers to anything the individual does.
Behaviour may be simple or complex, overt (expressed outside) or covert (expressed inside).

Examples of overt behaviour

(i) Blinking of eyes when a stone is hurled at a person

(ii) Withdrawing the hand immediately after touching a hot pan

Examples of covert behaviour

(i) The twitching of hand muscles while playing a game of chess
(ii) Pounding of heart during an interview

9. How can you distinguish scientific psychology from the popular notions about the
discipline of psychology?
Scientific psychology can be distinguished from the popular notions about the discipline of
psychology on the basis of the following characteristics:
[Link]. Scientific Psychology Popular notion about psychology
1. It is based on scientific study of It uses common-sense knowledge to
psychological phenomenon. understand behaviour.
2. It explains the psychological It explains the phenomenon on the
phenomenon systematically on the basis of experiences, sayings or
basis of empirical data. beliefs.
3. It studies the patterns of behaviour that It explains events in hindsight after
can be predicted before they occur. they occur.

10. Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology.

The evolution of psychology was an outcome of ancient philosophy. The formal beginning of
modern psychology took place in 1879 with the establishment of an experimental laboratory in
Leipzig by Wilhelm Wundt.

 The first school of psychology is structuralism focusing on structure of mind and introspection.
 Wilhelm Wundt has given structuralism and is also credited to separate the subject psychology
from subject philosophy. Introspection as a psychological method of self-observation is given by
E.B. Titchener.

 William James developed a functionalist approach to study human mind. He studied that instead
of focussing on the structure of the mind, psychology should instead study what the mind does and
how behaviour functions in making people deal with the environment.

 Gestalt psychology emerged in Germany as a reaction to structuralism in the early 20th century
and focused on the organisation of the perceptual experiences. The chief exponents are of Gestalt
psychology is: Kohler, Koffka & Wertheimer. For Gestalt psychologists, whole is more important
than constituent parts.

 Another reaction was the development of behaviourism that studied behaviour or responses in a
measurable and observable form. Behaviour is a response to stimuli. It can be measured.
Reinforcement use can strengthen one’s behaviour (Skinner). Father of behaviorism is J.B.
Watson.
 Further, Cognitive perspective was a combination of Gestalt approach and structuralism and
focused on how an individual perceived the world. It describes how people think, remember,
store and use information. Jean Piaget is a famous cognitive psychologist.

 Later, Constructivism viewed human beings as actively constructing their minds through the
exploration of physical and the social world.

Therefore, the evolution of psychology passed through various stages and levels. Starting from
the roots of philosophy, it took a new direction and included numerous theories of structuralism,
functionalism, behaviourism, constructivism, etc. However, in contemporary era the discipline of
psychology has grown into a scientific discipline, which deals with various processes underlying
human experiences and behaviours.

11. Development of Psychology in India

The Indian philosophical tradition is rich in its focus on mental processes and reflections on
human consciousness, self, mind-body relations, and a variety of mental functions such as
cognition, perception, illusion, attention and reasoning, etc. The development of the discipline in
India continues to be dominated by western psychology, although some attempts have been made
to find points of departure both within the country and abroad.
Timeline of development of psychology in India are as follows:
 The Department of Philosophy at Calcutta University where the first syllabus of
experimental psychology was introduced and the first psychology laboratory was
established in 1915.

 Calcutta University started the first Department of Psychology in the year 1916 and another
Department of Applied Psychology in 1938.

 The beginning of modern experimental psychology at Calcutta University was greatly

influenced by the Indian psychologist Dr. N.N. Sengupta who was trained in USA in the
experimental tradition of Wundt.

 Professor G. Bose was trained in Freudian psychoanalysis, another area which influenced
the early development of psychology in India. Professor Bose established Indian
Psychoanalytical Association in 1922.

 Later it led to further development of psychology as a discipline large numbers of centre

teaching, learning and training were established such as two centers of excellence in
psychology supported by the UGC at Utkal University, Bhubaneswar and at the University
 of Allahabad. About 70 universities offer courses in psychology.

However the development of Psychology in India is broadly classified into four phases as follows:

 The first phase till independence was a phase with emphasis on experimental,
psychoanalytic and psychological testing research, which primarily reflected the
development of the discipline in western countries.

 The second phase till the 1960s was a phase of expansion of psychology in India into
different branches of psychology. During this phase Indian psychologists showed a desire
to have an Indian identity by seeking to link western psychology to the Indian context.
They did this by using western ideas to understand the Indian situation.

 Psychology in India sought to become relevant for Indian society in the post 1960s phase
of problem-oriented research which lead to the third phase. Psychologists became more
focused on addressing the problems of the Indian society. Further, the limitations of
excessive dependence on western psychology for our social context were also realized,
wherein emphasis was placed on the significance of research, which is of relevance to our
situation.

 A new identity of psychology in India led to the phase of indigenisation, the fourth
phase which started during the late 1970s. Besides rejecting the western framework,
Indian psychologists stressed the need for developing an understanding based on a
framework, which was culturally and socially relevant. This phase is characterized by
development in indigenous psychology, which originated from the Indian cultural context
and was relevant for society and Indian psychology based on the Indian traditional
knowledge system. It has become more contextual emphasizing the need for developing
psychological principles, which are rooted in our own social and cultural context.
12. Themes of Research and Application
Theme 1: Psychology like other sciences attempts to develop principles ofbehaviour
and mental processes.
 The main concern is with the understanding and explanation of behaviour and mental
events and processes.
 Psychologists engage in research like scientists, they draw conclusions which are
supported by data. They design and conduct experiments or studies under controlled
conditions on a wide range of psychological phenomena.
 The purpose is to develop general principles about behaviour and mental processes.
The conclusions drawn on the basis of such studies apply to everybody and are,
therefore, universal.
 Experimental, comparative, physiological, developmental, social, differential and
abnormal psychology are generally regarded as domains representing “basic
psychology”. The themes of research in these fields differ from each other as per their
respective study area.
Theme 2: Human behaviour is a function of the attributes of persons and
environment.
 Kurt Lewin first proposed the famous equation B = f(P,E) which suggests that
behaviour is the product of a person and her/ his environment. This means that
individuals differ with respect to their various attributes because of their genetic and
environmental factors.
 Psychologists have been emphasizing on no two individuals are alike. People vary
with respect to their intelligence, interests, values, aptitudes and various other
personality characteristics. Differential psychology is helpful in understanding such
individual differences.
Theme 3: Human behaviour is caused.
 Behaviour can be explained in terms of causes which are internal (to the organism) or
external having location in the outside environment.
 Causal explanations are central to all sciences because without understanding them
no prediction will be possible. A number of causes for behaviour need to be analyzed
to understand the personality of individual.
 Theme 4: Understanding of human behaviour is culturally constructed.
 Since most of the principles of psychology are Euro American in nature, and are
defined as universal, but they do not help understand behavior in other cultural
settings. Therefore, culture-free psychological tests need to be developed to
understand the behaviour of an individual.
 Similarly, a critique is made by feminists who argue that psychology offers a male
perspective and ignores the perspective of women. They argue in favour of a
dialectical approach which will accommodate both male and female perspectives in
understanding human behaviour.
Theme 5: Human behaviour can be controlled and modified through the application of
psychological principles.
 Psychologist’s chief concern is to develop techniques or methods that will improve the
quality of human life. Developing such techniques has popularized the subject
psychology. E.g., use of reinforcement strengthens the response rate of students in the
classroom.
 13. Differentiate between (a) a psychologist and a psychiatrist (b) a counsellor and a
clinical psychologist.
a) The difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist are mentioned below:
[Link]. Psychologist Psychiatrist
1 A psychologist deals with the A psychiatrist deals with serious mental
psychological phenomenon. problems.
2 His/her main work is research in A psychiatrist studies the causes,
psychology and formulation of treatment and prevention of
psychological conclusions that are psychological disorders.
derived on the basis of data.
3 A psychologist does not hold a A psychiatrist holds a medical degree
medicaldegree and is mainly engaged and he/she can use medical treatment to
in academic and research activities. cure the patients.
b) The difference between a counsellor and clinical psychologist are mentioned below:

[Link]. Counsellor Clinical Psychologist

1 A counsellor deals with the causes, A clinical psychologist provides therapy for
treatment and prevention of different behavioural problems, which are related to
types of psychological disorders, which mental disorders.
are related to motivational and emotional
problems.
2 Counsellors help people in vocational Clinical psychologists conduct interviews and
rehabilitation programmes, making administer psychological tests to diagnose
professional choices and adjusting to new various problems.
situations in life.
3 A counsellor deals with different types of A clinical psychologist deals with specific and
psychological disorders in everyday life complicated psychological disorders.
ofthe patient.

16. Basic V/s Applied Psychology

 Basic Psychology provides us with theories and principles that form the basis of application
of Psychology.
  Applied Psychology provides us with different contexts in which the theories and principles
derived from research can be meaningfully applied.

17. Psychology And Other Disciplines

Psychology shares its knowledge with literature, art, science, commerce, music etc. Some of
the Major disciplines linked to the field of psychology are discussed below-
Philosophy
Despite the emergence of psychology as a science, it greatly draws from philosophy,
particularly with respect to methods of knowing, and various domains of human nature.
Medicine
Doctors have realized that the maxim, healthy body requires a healthy mind, is actually true.
A successful doctor looks at the psychological as well as physical well-being of the patients.
Music and Fine Art
Music and Psychology are complementary in nature which means that they go hand in hand
as they help in uplifting mood and productivity at work as well.

Architecture and Engineering

Psychology and Architecture go hand in hand as well. One of the important jobs of an
architect is to provide a physical space that satisfies their client mentally and aesthetically.

Mass Communication
Mass Communication is related to Psychology as well as the impact of media on the
formation of attitudes on children and their behaviour is a domain where both of these
disciplines come together.

Similarly some other disciplines including economics, political science, sociology, computer
science, law & criminology, etc. have direct association with the subject psychology (refer to
your text book for further readings).

18. Psychologists At work

Psychologists work at various human service areas and these are described below-

 Clinical Psychologists mainly deal with patients who suffer from severe
psychological disorders such as Depression, Schizophrenia, Anxiety, Eating Disorders
etc.
  Counseling Psychologists help clients deal with everyday challenges and
interpersonal issues such as career problems, self-esteem issues, Relationship and
family problems etc.
 Organizational Psychologist helps employees improve upon their overall well-being
along with their productivity and also they focus on making such a kind of workplace
environment which is very enriching for the employees.
 Community Psychologists are focusing on problems related to community mental
health.
 School Psychologists are focusing on developing the school ethos. They develop
instruments to measure school climate and the measures to esablish healthy
relationship among school members.

Describe some of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can be
put to practice.
Some of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can be put into
practice are as follows:

a. Psychology helps to understand various personal problems like family, marriage and work
sphere. It also helps to deal with larger problems related to community and society.

b. Psychology enables an individual to understand oneself in a balanced and positive way

without being reactionary, in order to deal with everyday challenges and meet with
personal expectations.

c. Understanding of psychology further helps in analysing the various social, economic and
political problems that affect an individual's life and their solution at individual and
collective level.

d. Psychology helps in understanding the cause of violence and need for cooperation that
makes people wise, which improves the societal relationships by avoiding conflict,
frustration and aggression.

e. Psychological analysis also enables in decision-making for various spheres and cultivating
healthy lifestyles.
Therefore, the understanding of psychology enables a person to build stronger relationships
at community level and improves the strength at individual level in order to meet daily
challenges and obstacles.