Fracture

Mechanics
• Brittle Fracture
Richard Nkhoma, PhD
FMFA-510
2021
 Fracture Mechanics

Brittle fracture
Fracture mechanics is used to formulate quantitatively

• The degree of Safety of a structure against brittle fracture

• The conditions necessary for crack initiation, propagation and

arrest

• The residual life in a component subjected to dynamic/fatigue

loading
Fracture mechanics identifies three primary factors that control the susceptibility
of a structure to brittle failure.
1. Material Fracture Toughness. Material fracture toughness may be defined
as the ability to carry loads or deform plastically in the presence of a notch.
It may be described in terms of the critical stress intensity factor, KIc, under
a variety of conditions. (These terms and conditions are fully discussed
later.)
2. Crack Size. Fractures initiate from discontinuities that can vary from
extremely small cracks to much larger weld or fatigue cracks. Furthermore,
although good fabrication practice and inspection can minimize the size and
number of cracks, most complex mechanical components cannot be
fabricated without discontinuities of one type or another.
3. Stress Level. For the most part, tensile stresses are necessary for brittle
fracture to occur. These stresses are determined by a stress analysis of the
particular component.

• Other factors such as temperature, loading rate, stress concentrations,

residual stresses, etc., influence these three primary factors.
Fracture at the Atomic level
❑ Two atoms or a set of atoms are bonded
together by cohesive energy or bond energy. Repulsion

❑ Two atoms (or sets of atoms) are said to be

Potential Energy
fractured if the bonds between the two atoms Distance

(or sets of atoms) are broken by externally Bond

Energy
applied tensile load Attraction
Equilibrium
Distance xo

Theoretical Cohesive Stress Tension

Cohesive
Bond

Applied Force
Force
If a tensile force ‘T’ is applied to separate the Energy

l Distance
two atoms, then bond∞
or cohesive energy is
k
Compression
𝜑 = න 𝑇𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑜
(2.1)
Where x is the equilibrium spacing between + +
o
two atoms.
Idealizing force-displacement relation as one xo

half of sine wave

𝜋𝑥
𝜑 = 𝑇𝐶 sin( )
𝜆 (2.2)
Theoretical Cohesive Stress (Contd.)  =  Tdx


xo

Assuming that the origin is defined at x o and for small

 = T sin( ) x
l
displacement relationship is assumed to be linear such C

𝜋𝑥 𝜋𝑥
that sin( 𝜆 ) ≈ 𝜆 Hence force-displacement Repulsion

relationship is given by

Potential Energy
x
TT
Distance
(2.2)
l
C Bond
Energy
Attraction

Bond stiffness ‘k’ is given by Equilibrium

Distance xo

T
Tension

k= C
(2.3)
l
Cohesive
Bond

Applied Force
Force
Energy

If there are n bonds acting per unit area and assuming x o l Distance

as gage length and multiplying eq. 2.3 by n x o then ‘k’ Compression

k

becomes young’s modulus and TC becomes cohesive + +

stress C such that

𝐸𝜆 xo

𝜎𝑐 = (2.4)
𝜋𝑥𝑜
E
c =
Or  (2.5)
If l is assumed to be approximately equal to the atomic
spacing
Theoretical Cohesive Stress (Contd.) 𝐸𝜆
𝜎𝑐 =
𝜋𝑥𝑜
The surface energy can be estimated as
Repulsion

Potential Energy
𝜆
1 𝜋𝑥 𝜆 Distance

𝛾𝑠 ≈ න 𝜎𝐶 sin 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜎𝐶 (2.6) Bond

2 𝜆 𝜋 Attraction
Energy

0 Equilibrium
Distance xo

Tension

The surface energy per unit area 𝛾𝑠 is Cohesive

Bond

Applied Force
Force
equal to one half the fracture energy Energy

l Distance
because two surfaces are created when a
k
material fractures. Using eq. 2.4 in to Compression

eq.2.6 + +

E
xo

 =
C
s

(2.7)
x o
Fracture stress for realistic material

Inglis (1913) analyzed for the flat plate with an
elliptical hole with major axis 2a and minor axis 2b,
subjected to far end stress 𝜎, the stress at the tip of
the major axis (point A) is given by
A A
A =   1 + 
2a r
(2.8)
 b 2b

The ratio  A  is defined as the stress

2a

concentration factor, k t
When a = b, it is a circular hole, then k t = 3.
When b is very very small, Inglis define radius of
curvature as b2
r= (2.9)
a

And the tip stress as

 a 
A =  1 + a   
  r   (2.10)

 Fracture stress for realistic material (contd.) A =   1 + 
2a
 b
b2 
r= a 
a A =  1 + a   
  r  


When a >> b eq. 2.10 becomes

a
 A = 2   (2.11)
r
For a sharp crack, a >>> b, 𝜌 = 0 and stress at the crack tip tends to 
Assuming that for a metal, plastic deformation is zero and the sharpest
crack may have root radius as atomic spacing 𝜌 = 𝑥𝑜 then the stress is
given by
 a 
 A = 2   (2.12)
 xo 
When far end stress reaches fracture stress  = f , crack propagates and
the stress at A reaches cohesive stress A = C then using eq. 2.7

E
1/ 2

f =  s 
(2.13)
 4a 
 Fracture stress for realistic material (contd.)
Example
What is the magnitude of the maximum stress that exists at the
tip of an internal crack having a radius of curvature of 2.5 x 10-4
mm and a crack length of 2.5 x 10-2 mm when a tensile stress of
170 MPa is applied?
Solution
In order to estimate the theoretical fracture strength of this
material it is necessary to calculate σA using Equation 2.11
given that  = 170 MPa, a = 2.5 x 10-2 mm, and ρ = 2.5 x 10-4
mm. Thus,
a
 A = 2  
r
 Fracture stress for realistic material (contd.)
Example
Estimate the theoretical fracture strength of a brittle material if it
is known that fracture occurs by the propagation of an
elliptically shaped surface crack of length 0.25 mm and having a
tip radius of curvature of 1.2 x 10-3 mm when a stress of 1200
MPa is applied
Solution
In order to estimate the theoretical fracture strength of this
material it is necessary to calculate σA using Equation 2.11
given that  = 1200 MPa, a = 0.25 mm, and ρ = 1.2 x 10-3
mm. Thus,
a
 A = 2  
r
Griffith’s Energy balance approach

•First documented paper on fracture

(1920)
•Considered as father of Fracture
Mechanics
 Griffith’s Energy balance approach (Contd.)
A A Griffith laid the foundations of modern fracture mechanics by
designing a criterion for fast fracture. He assumed that pre-
existing flaws propagate under the influence of an applied stress
only if the total energy of the system is thereby reduced. Thus,
Griffith's theory is not concerned with crack tip processes or the
micromechanisms by which a crack advances.


Griffith proposed that ‘There is a simple B

energy balance consisting of the decrease

in potential energy with in the stressed Y

body due to crack extension and this

decrease is balanced by increase in surface X

energy due to increased crack surface’ 2a

Griffith theory establishes theoretical strength of

brittle material and relationship between fracture
strength  f and flaw size ‘a’ 
 Griffith’s Energy balance approach (Contd.)


The initial strain energy for the uncracked plate B

per thickness is Y
𝜎2
𝑈𝑖 = න
2𝐸
𝑑𝐴 (2.14)
𝐴 X

2a

On creating a crack of size 2a, the tensile force

on an element ds on elliptic hole is relaxed
from 𝜎 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 to zero. The elastic strain energy 

released per unit width due to introduction of a

crack of length 2a is given by
𝑎
1 where displacement
𝑈𝑎 = −4 න 𝜎 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 ⋅ 𝑣 𝜎
2 𝑣 = 𝑎 ⋅ sin 𝜃
0
𝐸
using 𝑥 = 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝜃

𝜋𝜎 2 𝑎2
𝑈𝑎 = (2.15)
𝐸
 Griffith’s Energy balance approach (Contd.)


External work = 𝑈𝑤 = න 𝐹 𝑑𝑦, (2.16) B

𝛿
where F= resultant force = 𝜎 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 Y

𝛿 = total relative displacement

X

The potential or internal energy of the body is 2a

Up =Ui +U𝑎 −Uw



Due to creation of new surface increase in

 a
2 2

surface energy is Ua =
E Crack begins

U𝛾 = 4𝑎𝛾𝑠 (2.17) P1 to grow from

length (a)

Load, P
The total elastic energy of the cracked P2 Crack is
longer by an
) increment (da)
plate is (a
)
2 2 2 +da
𝜎 𝜋𝜎 𝑎 (a
𝑈𝑡 = න 𝑑𝐴 + − න 𝐹 𝑑𝑦 + 4𝑎𝛾𝑠
2𝐸 𝐸
𝐴 𝛿

v
Displacement, v
(2.18)
 Griffith’s Energy balance approach (Contd.)
The variation of 𝑈𝑡 with crack
extension should be minimum s
4a
=
2 U
𝑑𝑈𝑡 2𝜋𝜎 𝑎 rgy
=0⇒− + 4𝛾𝑠 = 0 En
e
𝑑𝑎 𝐸 rf ac
e
Su (a)

Energy, U
Denoting  as f during fracture
Crack
length, a

2E s 
1/ 2

f =   Total energy
 a  (2.19)
for plane stress Elastic Strain
Stable Unstable
1/ 2 energy released
 2E s   2a 2
f =  Ua =
2 
 a(1 −  )  (2.20) Potential energy  ¶U 
E

s
release rate G =  ¶a 
for plane strain
Rates, G, Syrface energy/unit
The Griffith theory is obeyed by extension =
(b)
materials which fail in a completely Crack
brittle elastic manner, e.g. glass, ac
length, a

mica, diamond and refractory (a) Variation of Energy with Crack length
metals. (b) Variation of energy rates with crack length
 Griffith’s Energy balance approach (Contd.)

Griffith extrapolated surface tension values of soda lime glass

from high temperature to obtain the value at room temperature as
1/ 2
 s = 0.54J / m 2 . Using value of E = 62GPa,The value of  2E  as 0.15
s

  
MPa m. From the experimental study on spherical vessels he
1/2

calculated 𝜎 𝑎 = 2𝐸𝛾𝜋
𝑐
𝑠
as 0.25 – 0.28 MPa m.

However, it is important to note that according to the Griffith

theory, it is impossible to initiate brittle fracture unless pre-
existing defects are present, so that fracture is always considered
to be propagation - (rather than nucleation-) controlled; this is a
serious short-coming of the theory.
 Griffith’s Energy balance approach (Contd.)

Example
If the specific surface energy for soda-lime glass is 0.30 J/m2,
with modulus of elasticity as 69 GPa, compute the critical stress
required for the propagation of a surface crack of length 0.05
mm

Solution
We may determine the critical stress required for the
propagation of an surface crack in soda-lime glass using
Equation 2.13; taking the value of 69 GPa as the modulus of
elasticity, we get
1/2
2𝐸𝛾𝑠
𝜎𝑓 =
𝜋𝑎
Modification for Ductile Materials
For more ductile materials (e.g. metals and plastics) it is found that
the functional form of the Griffith relationship is still obeyed, i.e.
f  a1/ 2 . However, the proportionality constant can be used to
evaluate s (provided E is known) and if this is done, one finds the
value is many orders of magnitude higher than what is known to be
the true value of the surface energy (which can be determined by
other means). For these materials plastic deformation accompanies
crack propagation even though fracture is macroscopically brittle;
The released strain energy is then largely dissipated by producing
localized plastic flow at the crack tip. Irwin and Orowan modified
the Griffith theory and came out with an expression
 2E(  s +  p ) 
1/ 2

f =  
 a 
Where prepresents energy expended in plastic work. Typically for
cleavage in metallic materials p=104 J/m2 and s=1 J/m2. Since p>>
s we have
 2E p 
1/ 2

f =  
 a 
 Strain Energy Release Rate
The strain energy release rate usually referred to
dU
G=
da
Note that the strain energy release rate is respect to crack length and
most definitely not time. Fracture occurs when reaches a critical
value which is denoted G c.
At fracture we have G = G c so that
1/ 2

f = 
1 EG c 

Y  a 
One disadvantage of using G c is that in order to determine f it is
necessary to know E as well as G.c This can be a problem with some
materials, eg polymers and composites, where varies with
composition and processing. In practice, it is usually more
convenient to combine E andG c in a single fracture toughness K c
parameter K cwhere K c2 = EG. cThen can be simply determined
experimentally using procedures which are well established.
 LINEAR ELASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS (LEFM)
For LEFM the structure obeys Hooke’s law and global behavior is linear
and if any local small scale crack tip plasticity is ignored
The fundamental principle of fracture mechanics is that the stress field around a
crack tip being characterized by stress intensity factor K which is related to both
the stress and the size of the flaw. The analytic development of the stress intensity
factor is described for a number of common specimen and crack geometries below.
The three modes of fracture

Mode I - Opening mode: where the crack surfaces separate symmetrically with
respect to the plane occupied by the crack prior to the deformation (results from
normal stresses perpendicular to the crack plane);

Mode II - Sliding mode: where the crack surfaces glide over one another in
opposite directions but in the same plane (results from in-plane shear); and

Mode III - Tearing mode: where the crack surfaces are displaced in the crack
plane and parallel to the crack front (results from out-of-plane shear).
LINEAR ELASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS (Contd.)
In the 1950s Irwin [7] and coworkers introduced the concept of stress intensity
factor, which defines the stress field around the crack tip, taking into account
crack length, applied stress  and shape factor Y( which accounts for finite size
of the component and local geometric features).
The Airy stress function.
In stress analysis each point, x,y,z, of a stressed solid undergoes the stresses; x
y, z, txy, txz,tyz. With reference to figure 2.3, when a body is loaded and
these loads are within the same plane, say the x-y plane, two different loading
conditions are possible: 
Thickness Thickness
1. plane stress (PSS), when the B

B

thickness of the body is yy
y
comparable to the size of the
z z
plastic zone and a free 
Crack
contraction of lateral surfaces X Plane
z z
occurs, and, a
2. plane strain (PSN), when the
specimen is thick enough to
 
avoid contraction in the
thickness z-direction. 
Plane Stress Plane Strain
In the former case, the overall stress state is reduced to the three
components; x, y, txy, since; z, txz, tyz= 0, while, in the latter
case, a normal stress, z, is induced which prevents the z
displacement, ez = w = 0. Hence, from Hooke's law:
z = ν (x+y)
where ν is Poisson's ratio.
For plane problems, the equilibrium conditions are:

¶ x ¶t xy ¶ y ¶t xy
+ =0 ; + =0
¶x ¶y ¶y ¶x

If is the Airy’s stress function satisfying the biharmonic

compatibility Conditions
 4 = 0
 ¶2 ¶ 2 ¶ 2
Then x = 2 , y = 2 , t xy = −
¶y ¶x ¶xy
For problems with crack tip Westergaard introduced Airy’s stress
function as = −
 = Re[ Z] + y Im[Z]
Where Z is an analytic complex function

= −
bg
Z z = Re[ z] + y Im[ z] ; z = x + iy
And Z, Z are 2nd and 1st integrals of Z(z)
Then the stresses are given by
¶2
 x = 2 = Re[Z] − y Im[Z ' ]
¶y
¶2
y = 2 = Re[Z] + y Im[Z' ]
¶x
¶2
t xy = = − y Im[Z' ]
¶xy
where Z' = dZ dz
 Opening mode analysis or Mode I
Consider an infinite plate a crack of length 2a subjected to a biaxial
State of stress. Defining: s
z
Z=
(z 2
− a2 )
y s
x
Boundary Conditions : 2a

• At infinity (| z |=  ) x =  y = , t xy = 0
• On crack faces
( −a  x  a; y = 0 ) x = t xy = 0
s
By replacing z by z+a , origin shifted to crack tip.

Z=
b g
 z−a
zb
z + 2a g
 And when |z|→0 at the vicinity of the crack tip
a KI
Z= =
2az 2 z
K I =  a
KI must be real and a constant at the crack tip. This is due to a
1
Singularity given by
z
The parameter KI is called the
stress intensity factor for opening
mode I.
Since origin is shifted to crack
tip, it is easier to use polar
Coordinates, Using

z = ei
Further Simplification gives:
    3 
cos   1 − sin   sin   
KI
x =
2 r 2  2   2 
   3 
cos   1 + sin   sin   
KI
y =
2 r 2  2   2 
   3 
sin   cos   cos   
KI
t xy =
2r 2 2  2 
KI
In general ij = f ij (  ) and K I = Y a
2r
where Y = configuration factor
From Hooke’s law, displacement field can be obtained as
2(1 − )   −1  
cos    + sin 2   
r
u= KI
E 2 2 2  2 
2(1 − )   −1  
sin    + cos 2   
r
v= KI
E 2  2   2  2 
where u, v = displacements in x, y directions
 = (3 − 4) for plane stress problems
3−  
 =   for plane strain problems
 1+  
The vertical displacements at any position along x-axis ( = 0) is
given by 
v=
E
2
(a
2
−x ) y
for plane stress
v

(1 −  2 )
(a )
x
v= 2
−x 2
for plane strain x
E
The strain energy required for creation of crack is given by the
work done by force acting on the crack face while relaxing the
stress  to zero 1
U a = Fv
2
For plane stress For plane strain
 (1 −  2 )
( a − x )dx (a − x 2 )dx
a a
Ua = 4   2 2
Ua = 4   2

0 E 0 E
2 a 2 2 a 2 (1 − 2 )
E E
The strain energy release rate is given by G = dU a da
2 a 2 (1 −  2 )a
GI = GI =
E E
K 2I K 2I (1 − 2 )
GI = GI =
E E
 Sliding mode analysis or Mode 2

For problems with crack tip under shear loading, Airy’s stress
function is taken as − t
0

II = − y Re[Z]
Using Air’s definition for stresses y

¶2
 x = 2 = 2 Im[Z] + y Re[Z' ]
¶y
2a

¶2
y = 2 = − y Re[Z' ] t0
¶x
¶2
t xy = − = Re[Z] − y Im[Z' ]
¶xy
Using a Westergaard stress function of the form
t0 z
Z=
(z 2
− a2 )
Boundary Conditions :
• At infinity (| z |=  ) x =  y = 0, t xy = t0
• On crack faces
( −a  x  a; y = 0 ) x = t xy = 0
With usual simplification would give the stresses as
     3  
cos   cos    2 + cos   cos    
K II
x =
2 r  2    2  2  2  
   3 
cos   sin   cos   
K II
y =
2 r 2 2  2 
   3 
cos   1 − sin   sin   
K II
t xy =
2 r 2  2   2 
Displacement components are given by

(1 + )sin     + 2 + cos (  )
K II r
u=
E 2 2

(1 + )cos     − 2 + cos (  )
K II r
v=
E 2 2
 K II = to a
K 2I
GI = for plane stress
E
K 2I (1 −  2 )
GI = for plane strain
E
Tearing mode analysis or Mode 3
In this case the crack is displaced along z-axis. Here
the displacements u and v are set to zero and hence
e x = e y =  xy =  yx = 0
¶w ¶w
 xy =  yx = and  yz =  zy =
¶x ¶y
the equilibrium equation is written as
¶t xz ¶t yz
+ =0
¶x ¶y
Strain displacement relationship is given by
¶2 w ¶2 w
+ =  2
w=0
¶x 2
¶y 2
 if w is taken as
1 −
w = Im[ Z]
G
Then
t xy = Im[Z]; t yz = Re[Z]

Using Westergaard stress functionas

t0 z
Z=
(z 2
− a2 )
where t0 is the applied boundary shear stress
with the boundary conditions
on the crack face ( −a  x  a; y = 0 ) z = t yz = t xy = 0
on the boundary x = y = , t yz = t0
The stresses are given by

sin  
K III
t xz =
2r 2

t yz = III cos  
K
2r 2
 x =  y = t xy = 0
and displacements are given by
K III 2r  
w = sin  
G  2
u=v=0
K III = to a
Example
A flat plate shown in figure with a through-thickness crack is
subject to a 100 MPa tensile stress and has a fracture toughness
(KIC) of 50.0 MPa m . Determine the critical crack length for
this plate, assuming th,, material is linear elastic.

Solution
At fracture, KIC = KI = 𝜎 𝜋𝑎𝑐 , therefore
50 MPa m = 100 MPa 𝜋𝑎𝑐
𝑎𝑐 = 0.0796 m = 79.6 mm
Total crack length = 2𝑎𝑐 = 159 mm