Introduction
Russia is the largest country in the world by land area, spanning Eastern Europe and northern
Asia and covering a wide range of climates, landscapes, and cultures. Its history—from the early
East Slavic states through the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union, and the modern Russian
Federation—has had a major impact on global politics, economics, and security.
Geography and people
Russia extends across eleven time zones, from the Baltic Sea and Eastern Europe to the Pacific
Ocean and the borders with China and Korea. It includes diverse regions such as the European
plains, the Ural Mountains, Siberian forests and tundra, and resource-rich areas with oil, gas,
and minerals. The population is ethnically diverse, though ethnic Russians form a majority, and
many other groups—Tatars, Ukrainians, Bashkirs, Chechens, and many more—live across its
republics and regions.
Early history and the rise of Moscow
The roots of the Russian state are usually traced to early East Slavic societies and the polity
often called Kievan Rus, which developed trade links and adopted Orthodox Christianity from
Byzantium. After the Mongol invasions in the 13th century, many territories came under the
control of the Golden Horde, and over time the principality of Moscow grew in power, gradually
uniting surrounding lands. By the 15th and 16th centuries, Moscow emerged as a major center,
with rulers who began to use the title “tsar” and to expand territory eastward and southward.
Russian Empire
Over several centuries, Russia transformed into a vast empire under rulers such as Peter the
Great and Catherine the Great, who pursued westernization in some areas while maintaining
autocratic rule. The empire expanded into Siberia, Central Asia, the Caucasus, and parts of
Eastern Europe, becoming a multiethnic state with many subject peoples. Social life remained
highly unequal, with serfdom binding peasants to landowners until the 19th century, and
recurring unrest highlighted the tensions between modernization and autocracy.
Revolution and Soviet Union
In the early 20th century, military defeats, economic hardship, and political repression fueled
revolution. The 1917 revolutions led first to the fall of the monarchy and then to a Bolshevik
(communist) government, which fought a civil war and created a new state that became known
as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Under Soviet rule, the country underwent
rapid industrialization, collectivization of agriculture, and strict one-party control, with periods
of severe repression, purges, and widespread human suffering.
Second World War and superpower status
During the Second World War, the Soviet Union suffered enormous casualties and destruction
but ultimately played a decisive role in defeating Nazi Germany. Victory strengthened its status
as a global power and extended its influence over much of Eastern Europe. After the war, the
USSR emerged as one of two main superpowers, confronting the United States in the Cold War
through ideological rivalry, military competition, and a worldwide contest for allies.
Late Soviet period and collapse
By the late 20th century, economic stagnation, political rigidity, and rising public dissatisfaction
put pressure on the Soviet system. Reforms introduced under leaders such as Mikhail
Gorbachev attempted to restructure the economy and open public life, but they also weakened
central control and encouraged nationalist movements. In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved, and
Russia emerged as an independent state, inheriting the largest share of its territory, population,
and military assets.
Post-Soviet Russia
The 1990s were marked by political instability, economic upheaval, and a difficult transition
from a planned to a market-oriented economy. Privatization created powerful business elites,
while many citizens experienced declining living standards and uncertainty. Over time, the
central government reasserted authority, recentralizing power and presenting itself as a
guarantor of stability and national revival.
Government and politics
Modern Russia is formally a federal state with a president, a legislature, and a constitution, but
political power is heavily concentrated in the presidency and a small circle around the executive.
Elections and political parties exist, yet critics argue that media control, restrictions on
opposition, and pressure on civil society limit genuine competition. Debates about democracy,
human rights, security, and the role of the state remain central to Russian politics and to its
relations with other countries.
Economy and society
Russia’s economy relies significantly on natural resources, particularly oil and natural gas, along
with metals, chemicals, and other industrial sectors. High energy prices can bring periods of
growth and government revenue, while price drops, sanctions, or internal structural problems
can expose vulnerabilities. Socially, the country faces issues such as demographic change,
regional inequalities, public health challenges, and differences in development between large
cities and more remote regions.
Culture and identity
Russian culture includes a rich heritage in literature, music, visual arts, theatre, and science,
with figures who have had global influence. Cultural identity often blends pride in historical
achievements with awareness of periods of hardship and conflict. Many people balance local,
regional, ethnic, and religious identities with a broader sense of belonging to a large, sometimes
contested, national narrative.
Foreign policy and current challenges
Russia’s foreign policy seeks recognition as a major power and emphasizes sovereignty, security,
and influence in its neighboring regions. Relationships with Western countries, neighboring
states, and rising powers are shaped by historical experiences, security concerns, and
competing visions of international order. Contemporary challenges include managing economic
dependence on energy exports, dealing with sanctions and geopolitical tensions, responding to
technological change, and addressing internal political and social pressures.