EXOGENIC PROCESS
● Exogenic processes are external processes that occur on the Earth’s
surface.
● These processes are caused by external forces such as water, wind,
waves, ice, and gravity.
● They shape the Earth’s landscape through weathering, erosion, and
mass wasting.
LESSON 1: WEATHERING
● Weathering – the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces.
● It can occur without movement of the broken materials.
● It can be mechanical (physical) or chemical.
1. Mechanical Weathering (Physical Weathering)
● Breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces without changing their
chemical composition.
● Caused by physical forces like temperature change, freezing water, and
biological activity.
Types of Mechanical Weathering
1. Frost Wedging
○ Water enters cracks in rocks, freezes, and expands.
○ Expansion forces the rock apart, creating larger cracks.
2.Pressure-Release (Exfoliation)
○ Deeply buried rocks are uplifted by tectonic forces.
○ When overlying rocks are removed by erosion, pressure is released,
causing rocks to expand and crack.
3.Abrasion
○ Rocks are worn down by friction or grinding when moved by wind,
water, or ice.
○ Smooths and rounds rock surfaces.
4.Organic Activity (Biological Weathering)
○ Plant roots grow into rock cracks and expand them.
○ Animals and humans can also break rocks through digging or
construction.
5.Thermal Expansion and Contraction
○ Repeated heating and cooling cause rocks to expand and contract.
○ Leads to cracking and surface flaking over time.
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2. Chemical Weathering
● Breakdown of rocks that changes their composition or internal mineral
structure.
● Occurs when minerals react with water, air, or other chemicals.
Types of Chemical Weathering
1. Dissolution
○ Minerals dissolve in water (e.g., rock salt dissolving in rainwater).
○ Common in areas with limestone, forming caves and sinkholes.
2.Hydrolysis
○ Reaction between minerals and water forming new minerals that
contain water.
○ Example: Feldspar → Clay.
3.Oxidation
○ Reaction of minerals with oxygen (commonly in iron-rich rocks).
○ Produces rust (reddish color) and weakens rocks.
LESSON 2: EROSION
● Erosion – the transportation or removal of soil, rocks, and sediments
from one place to another.
● Unlike weathering, erosion involves movement of the materials.
● Carried out by agents such as water, wind, ice, and waves.
Key Concepts
● Erosion shapes valleys, cliffs, and riverbanks.
● Rocks and soil are worn away and carried by natural forces.
● The rate of erosion depends on slope, vegetation, rainfall, and human
activity.
Agents of Erosion
1. Water
○ Main agent of erosion; rivers, rainfall, and floods move sediments.
2.Wind
○ Moves fine particles like sand and dust in dry areas.
3.Ice
○ Glaciers pick up and move rocks over long distances.
4.Waves
○ Constantly wear away coastlines and transport materials.
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Ways Sediments are Transported (Loads of Erosion)
1.In Solution (Dissolved Load)
○ Minerals are dissolved in water and carried as a solution.
○ Usually comes from groundwater or dissolved rocks.
2.In Suspension (Suspended Load)
○ Fine particles like sand, silt, and clay are carried in water flow.
○ During floods, larger particles can also be suspended.
3.Bed Load (Scooting/Rolling Along the Bottom)
○ Larger, heavier particles move along the riverbed by rolling,
sliding, or saltation (jumping movement).
LESSON 3: MASS WASTING
● Mass Wasting (also called slope movement) – the downhill movement
of rocks, soil, and debris due to gravity.
● Occurs on slopes, both on land and underwater.
● Does not require a transporting medium like water or wind (unlike
erosion).
Factors that Trigger or Control Mass Wasting
1. Water
○ Reduces friction and destroys cohesion among particles.
○ Adds weight, making materials slide downhill easily.
2.Over-Steepened Slopes
○ When slopes become too steep, they become unstable and prone to
sliding.
3.Vegetation Removal
○ Roots help hold soil together.
○ Cutting trees or removing plants weakens slope stability, increasing
landslide risk.
4.Earthquakes
○ Vibrations loosen rocks and soil, triggering landslides or rockfalls.
Classifications of Mass Wasting
A. Based on Type of Material
● Debris, Mud, or Earth – dominated by soil and regolith (loose surface
material).
● Rock – involves movement of solid rock fragments or boulders.
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B. Based on Type of Motion
1. Fall
○ Free-fall of detached rocks from steep slopes or cliffs.
○ Caused by freeze-thaw cycles or plant root expansion.
2. Slide
○ Material moves as a single unit along a defined surface (joint, fault, or
bedding plane).
○ Common in clay-rich or over-steepened areas.
3. Flow
○ Material behaves like a thick liquid moving downslope.
○ Usually saturated with water and forms lobes or tongues.
C. Based on Rate of Movement
FAST MOVEMENTS
1. Slump
○ Downward sliding of material along a curved surface.
○ Common in thick clay deposits and over-steepened slopes.
2. Rockslide
○ Rapid movement of rocks along planes of weakness.
○ Often occurs in mountains, triggered by rainfall or melting snow.
3. Debris Flow (Mudflow or Lahar)
○ Flow of soil and debris mixed with large amounts of water.
○ Occurs on hillsides or volcanoes during heavy rain.
○ Materials are usually rich in clay and silt.
4.Earthflow
○ Slower and more viscous than debris flow.
○ Sometimes caused by liquefaction (soil losing strength due to
saturation).
SLOW MOVEMENTS
1. Creep
○ Gradual downhill movement of soil and regolith.
○ Caused by expansion and contraction from wetting/drying or
freezing/thawing.
2. Solifluction
○ Common in cold regions with permafrost.
○ Occurs in the active layer (thaws in summer, freezes in winter).
Summary
● Weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces.
● Erosion transports the weathered materials.
● Mass Wasting moves materials downslope due to gravity.
● Together, these exogenic processes continuously reshape the Earth’s
surface.
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Endogenic Process
● Definition: Processes that originate from within the Earth causing rocks to
change, move, or form new landforms. Includes metamorphism, folding,
faulting, continental drift, and sea-floor spreading.
● Focus of module:
○ How rocks undergo weathering and are moved by erosion.
○ How rocks and soil move downslope due to gravity.
○ Understanding Earth’s layers and plate tectonics.
Lesson 1: Earth’s Interior
1. Crust:
○ Thinnest, outermost layer; 32–72 km thick.
○ Two layers: Upper (granite, continental crust only), Lower (basalt, under
continents & oceans).
○ Continental crust: 30–40 km, less dense, under land, made of Si, O, Al,
Ca, Na, K.
○ Oceanic crust: 7–10 km, dense basalt, heavier, under oceans.
2. Mantle:
○ Beneath crust, 2900 km thick, 80% of Earth’s volume, 68% of mass.
○ Composed of silicate rocks (Si, O, Fe, Mg).
○ Solid (allows P and S waves to pass).
○ Two layers: Lithosphere (rigid upper mantle), Asthenosphere (viscous
solid); lower mantle = Mesosphere.
○ Moho = boundary between crust and mantle (density difference).
○ Temperature & pressure increase with depth, allowing slow rock flow.
3. Outer Core:
○ Depth 2900 km, thickness 2250 km, composed of iron & nickel.
○ Temperature ~2000°C → molten; generates Earth’s magnetism.
4.Inner Core:
○ Solid iron & nickel, radius 1300 km, temperature ~5000°C.
○ Solid due to pressure freezing despite high temperature.
○ Boundary discovered by Inge Lehman.
Lesson 2: Metamorphism
● Metamorphic rock: Formed when any rock (igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic) changes form, texture, or mineral composition due to:
○ Crust ○ Magma ○ Thermal or
movement activity fluid changes
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Lesson 3: Folding and Faulting
1. Folding:
○ Rock layers bend due to compressional forces.
○ Large-scale folds = along destructive plate boundaries.
○ Anticlines = upward folds; Synclines = downward folds.
2. Faulting:
○ Fracturing & displacement of rock along a fault plane due to tension or
compression.
○ Fault line: visible line of weakness on surface.
3. Types of Faults:
○ Normal Fault: hanging wall moves down; foot wall moves up.
○ Reverse Fault: hanging wall moves up; indicates compression;
steep dip >45°.
○ Transform Fault: horizontal movement along plate boundaries; can trigger
earthquakes.
4. Types of Mountains:
○ Fold Mountains: Formed by plate collision; examples: Himalayas, Alps,
Andes, Rockies, Urals.
○ Fault-block Mountains: Formed by crust fractures, blocks move up/down;
examples: Sierra Nevada, Harz.
○ Dome Mountains: Magma uplifts layers; erosion forms circular mountains;
examples: Black Hills, Idaho’s Bear Lodge Mountains.
○ Volcanic Mountains: Formed by volcanoes, lava piles into cone; examples:
Mount St. Helens, Mount Pinatubo, Mount Kea, Mount Loa.
○ Plateau Mountains: Formed by erosion, flat elevated areas; examples:
Mountains in New Zealand.
Lesson 4: Continental Drift
● Theory: Earth's continents were once joined as a supercontinent (Pangaea)
and drifted apart. Proposed by Alfred Wegener.
● Evidence:
1. Continental Jigsaw Puzzle: Shapes of continents fit together (e.g.,
South America & Africa).
2. Fossil Match across Seas:
■ Glossopteris: 250 million years old; South Africa, Australia, India,
Antarctica.
■ Mesosaurus & Lystrosaurus: freshwater fossils; impossible to cross
oceans naturally.
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3. Rocks & Structures Match: Appalachian Mountains, Cape Mountains
align across continents.
4.Ancient Climate (Coal Deposits): Glacial deposits in now tropical
regions; coal in Antarctica → once closer to equator.
● Plate Tectonic Theory:
1. Lithosphere = plates moving over the asthenosphere.
2. Key scientists: Arthur Holmes, Harry Hess, Robert Dietz, Fred Vine,
Drummond Matthews, W. Jason Morgan.
● Types of Plate Boundaries:
1. Convergent: Plates collide; forms mountains, trenches, island arcs.
■ Ocean-ocean: island arcs, oceanic trenches.
■ Ocean-continent: subduction, mountain ranges (e.g., Andes).
■ Continent-continent: collision, huge mountains (e.g., Himalayas).
2. Divergent: Plates move apart; forms rifts (land) & mid-ocean ridges
(ocean).
3. Transform: Plates slide horizontally; causes earthquakes.
● Driving Mechanisms:
1. Convection Currents: Heat from mantle rises → moves plates; ongoing
for 4+ billion years.
2. Slab-Push & Slab-Pull:
■ Ridge Push: Plate pushed by slope of ridge.
■ Slab Pull: Denser lithosphere sinks, pulling plate.
3. Hot Plumes: Magma rises from mantle → forms hotspots, creates
volcanic chains.
Lesson 5: Sea-Floor Spreading
● Theory: Formation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges; crust moves
away from ridges.
● Process:
○ Magma rises → cools → forms new crust → spreads away → older crust
sinks into trenches.
● Evidence:
○ Magnetic striping: Magnetic field reversals recorded in rocks.
○ Age of rocks: Rocks older further from ridge.
○ Seismic data: Oceanic crust sinks into trenches.
● Developed by Harry Hess, 1960s; supported by Vine & Matthews (magnetic
evidence).
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History of the Earth
● Focus: Formation of rock layers, methods for determining rock
ages, and subdivision of geologic time.
Lesson 1: Relative Dating
● Definition: Science of determining the relative order of events
without knowing exact age.
● Stratigraphy: Study of layered sedimentary rocks.
● Principles of Relative Dating:
1.Superposition: In undisturbed strata, bottom layers are
oldest, upper layers are younger.
2.Original Horizontality: Rock layers are originally horizontal;
exceptions at basin margins.
3.Lateral Continuity: Strata extend continuously until thinning at
basin edges or barriers.
4.Cross-Cutting Relationships: Folds, faults, or intrusions are
younger than rocks they cut.
5.Inclusions: Rock fragments inside a rock are older than the
host rock.
6.Fossil Succession: Fossil assemblages are unique to time
periods → correlate rock layers geographically.
● Unconformities: Geological surfaces indicating breaks in
deposition or erosion.
1.Disconformity: Break in parallel strata.
2.Nonconformity: Sedimentary strata deposited on
igneous/metamorphic rocks.
3.Angular unconformity: Strata deposited on tilted, folded, or
faulted strata.
Lesson 2: Absolute Dating
● Definition: Determining chronological age of rocks or artifacts.
● Radiometric Dating: Measures radioactive isotopes and their
decay products to determine age.
● Isotope: Atom with same protons, different neutrons.
● Carbon Dating: Focuses on carbon-14 decay, used for organic
materials.
○ Half-life of carbon-14: ~5730 years → dates up to ~50,000
years old.
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Lesson 3: Geologic Time Scale
● Definition: System for chronologically dating geological and
paleontological events.
● First absolute-dated time scale: 1913 by Arthur Holmes, estimated
Earth age ≥ 1.6 billion years.
● Subdivisions (largest to smallest):
○ Eons → Eras → Periods → Epochs → Ages
● Basis of subdivisions:
○ Stratigraphy (rock layer correlation)
○ Fossil record (emergence/disappearance of species)
● Standard chart: International Chronostratigraphic Chart
maintained by ICS.
Lesson 4: Evolution of the Earth
● Fossils: Preserved remains or traces of ancient organisms; not the
organism itself.
● Index Fossils: Lived during specific, short geologic periods →
define time subdivisions.
● Types of Fossils:
1.Body Fossils: Entire or partial remains (bones, teeth, shells);
soft tissue rarely preserved.
■ Examples: bones, teeth.
2.Molds and Casts:
■ Mold: Imprint of organism; can be internal (inside shell) or
external (outside shell).
■ Cast: Replica formed when mold fills with sediment.
3.Permineralization & Petrification:
■ Permineralization: Minerals (calcite, iron, silica) replace
parts of the organism; retains original shape.
■ Petrification: Organic matter fully replaced by minerals →
turns to stone (e.g., petrified wood).
4.Trace Fossils: Footprints, trackways, burrows; show behavior
and movement of organisms.
5.Coprolites (Fossilized Feces): Provide dietary and habitat
information; preserved via petrification or cast/mold.