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UNIT 5

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

Chapter 14: Breathing and Exchange of Gases

Key Concepts in Human Physiology Study Approaches

Reductionist approach: Studies life forms using physico-chemical concepts, often with
tissue or cell-free systems.
Molecular physiology: Overlaps with biochemistry and biophysics.
Systems biology: Views living phenomena as emergent properties from interactions
among molecules, cells, tissues, organisms, populations.
Biological processes require integration of molecular and organismic approaches.

Alfonso Corti (1822–1888)

Italian anatomist who described the organ of Corti (auditory hair cells on cochlea basilar
membrane).
Initially studied reptilian cardiovascular systems.
Organ of Corti converts sound vibrations into nerve impulses.

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14.1 Respiratory Organs

Respiratory Mechanisms Across Animals

Animal Group Respiratory Notes

Organ/Mechanism

Lower invertebrates Diffusion over body surface Sponges, coelenterates,

flatworms

Earthworms Moist cuticle Cutaneous respiration

Insects Tracheal tubes Network of air tubes

Aquatic arthropods & Gills (branchial respiration) Vascularized structures

molluscs

Terrestrial vertebrates Lungs (pulmonary Amphibians, reptiles, birds,

respiration) mammals

Amphibians Lungs + moist skin Dual respiration modes

(cutaneous)

14.1.1 Human Respiratory System

Pathway of air: External nostrils → nasal chamber → pharynx → larynx → trachea →

bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli.
Larynx: Cartilaginous sound box; epiglottis prevents food entry during swallowing.
Trachea: Divides into right and left primary bronchi at 5th thoracic vertebra.
Bronchi: Secondary, tertiary bronchi → bronchioles → terminal bronchioles.
Alveoli: Thin, vascularized sacs where gas exchange occurs.
Lungs: Two lungs covered by double-layered pleura with pleural fluid to reduce friction.
Thoracic cavity: Formed by vertebral column (dorsal), sternum (ventral), ribs (lateral),
diaphragm (inferior).
Conducting part: Nostrils to terminal bronchioles; functions in air transport, filtering,
humidifying, warming.
Respiratory part: Alveoli and alveolar ducts; site of gas diffusion.

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Thoracic cavity volume changes directly affect lung volume, essential for
breathing.

Respiration Steps

1. Pulmonary ventilation: Air movement in/out of lungs.

2. Gas diffusion: Across alveolar membrane.
3. Gas transport: By blood.
4. Tissue diffusion: Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange between blood and tissues.
5. Cellular respiration: Oxygen utilization and carbon dioxide production in cells.

14.2 Mechanism of Breathing

Two phases:
Inspiration: Air drawn into lungs (intra-pulmonary pressure < atmospheric pressure).
Expiration: Air expelled from lungs (intra-pulmonary pressure > atmospheric
pressure).

Muscles involved:
Diaphragm (contracts → increases thoracic volume antero-posteriorly).
External intercostals (lift ribs and sternum → increase thoracic volume dorso-
ventrally).
Internal intercostals and abdominal muscles assist forced expiration/inspiration.

Pressure-volume relationship:
Increase in thoracic volume → decrease in intra-pulmonary pressure → inspiration.
Decrease in thoracic volume → increase in intra-pulmonary pressure → expiration.

Normal respiratory rate: 12–16 breaths/minute.

Spirometer: Device to measure respiratory volumes and assess lung function.

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14.2.1 Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

Term Definition Approximate

Volume (mL)

Tidal Volume (TV) Air inspired/expired in normal 500

respiration

Inspiratory Reserve Additional air inspired forcibly after 2500–3000

Volume (IRV) normal inspiration

Expiratory Reserve Additional air expired forcibly after 1000–1100

Volume (ERV) normal expiration

Residual Volume (RV) Air remaining after forcible expiration 1100–1200

Pulmonary Capacity Composition

Inspiratory Capacity (IC) TV + IRV

Expiratory Capacity (EC) TV + ERV

Functional Residual Capacity ERV + RV

(FRC)

Vital Capacity (VC) ERV + TV + IRV (max air breathed in after forced
expiration)

Total Lung Capacity (TLC) VC + RV (total air in lungs after forced inspiration)

14.3 Exchange of Gases

Primary site: Alveoli.

Mechanism: Simple diffusion driven by partial pressure gradients.
Partial pressure: Pressure exerted by individual gas in mixture, denoted pO2 and pCO2 .
​ ​

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Location pO2 (mm Hg)

​ pCO2 (mm Hg)
​

Atmospheric air 159 0.3

Alveoli 104 40

Blood (Deoxygenated) 40 45

Blood (Oxygenated) 95 40

Tissues 40 45

Gas diffusion direction:

Oxygen: Alveoli → blood → tissues
Carbon dioxide: Tissues → blood → alveoli

CO₂ solubility: 20–25 times higher than O₂ → diffuses more readily per unit partial
pressure difference.

Alveolar Diffusion Membrane Structure

Layer Description

Squamous epithelium of Thin epithelial cells lining alveoli

alveoli

Basement membrane Thin membrane supporting alveolar epithelium and capillary

endothelium

Endothelium of alveolar Single layer lining pulmonary capillaries

capillaries

Total thickness < 1 mm, facilitating rapid gas diffusion.

14.4 Transport of Gases

Blood: Main transport medium for O₂ and CO₂.

Oxygen transport:
97% bound to haemoglobin in RBCs as oxyhaemoglobin.
3% dissolved in plasma.

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Carbon dioxide transport:

20–25% bound to haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin.
70% transported as bicarbonate ions (HCO−
3 ). ​

7% dissolved in plasma.

14.4.1 Transport of Oxygen

Haemoglobin (Hb): Iron-containing pigment in RBCs; binds O₂ reversibly.

Oxygen binding capacity: 4 O₂ molecules per Hb molecule.
Oxygen dissociation curve: Sigmoid shape plotting % Hb saturation vs. pO2 . ​

Factors affecting O₂ binding:

Partial pressure of oxygen (pO2 ) ​

Partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2 ) ​

Hydrogen ion concentration (H+ )

Temperature

Location Conditions Effect on O₂-Hb binding

Alveoli High pO2 , low pCO2 , low H+ , low

​ ​
Favors O₂ binding (oxyhaemoglobin
temp formation)

Tissues Low pO2 , high pCO2 , high H+ , ​

Favors O₂ release (dissociation)
high temp

O₂ delivery: ~5 mL O₂ per 100 mL oxygenated blood to tissues.

14.4.2 Transport of Carbon Dioxide

Carbamino-haemoglobin: CO₂ bound to Hb (~20–25%).

Binding influenced by:
High pCO2 and low pO2 (tissues) → more CO₂ binding.
​ ​

Low pCO2 and high pO2 (alveoli) → CO₂ dissociation.

​ ​

Carbonic anhydrase enzyme: Catalyzes reversible reaction:

CO2 + H2 O ​ ​ ​ H2 CO3
​ ​ ​ HCO−
3 +H
​
+
Carbonic anhydrase

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At tissues: CO₂ + H₂O → HCO₃⁻ + H⁺ (CO₂ transported as bicarbonate).

At alveoli: HCO₃⁻ + H⁺ → CO₂ + H₂O (CO₂ released for exhalation).
CO₂ delivery: ~4 mL CO₂ per 100 mL deoxygenated blood to alveoli.

14.5 Regulation of Respiration

Respiratory rhythm centre: Located in medulla oblongata; controls breathing rate.

Pneumotaxic centre: Located in pons; modulates rhythm centre by shortening inspiration
duration.
Chemosensitive area: Near rhythm centre; sensitive to increased CO2 and H+​

concentrations.
Peripheral chemoreceptors: Located in aortic arch and carotid arteries; detect changes in
CO2 and H+ .
​

Oxygen role: Minimal in respiratory rhythm regulation under normal conditions.

14.6 Disorders of Respiratory System

Disorder Description Cause/Notes

Asthma Difficulty breathing with wheezing Bronchi and bronchioles

due to bronchial inflammation affected

Emphysema Chronic damage to alveolar walls Major cause: cigarette

reducing respiratory surface smoking

Occupational Lung damage from prolonged dust Causes fibrosis; protective

Respiratory exposure (e.g., grinding, stone- masks recommended
Disorders breaking)

Cells require continuous oxygen supply for metabolism and energy production;
respiratory system evolved to efficiently exchange O₂ and CO₂.

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Respiration Process

Steps of Respiration

Breathing:
Inspiration: Atmospheric air intake
Expiration: Alveolar air release

Gas Exchange:
Between deoxygenated blood and alveoli
Between oxygenated blood and tissues

Transport of Gases: Blood carries O2 and CO2 throughout the body

​ ​

Cellular Respiration: Utilisation of O2 by cells

​

Mechanism of Breathing

Achieved by creating pressure gradients between atmosphere and alveoli

Involves intercostal muscles and diaphragm
Air volumes measured by spirometer (clinically significant)

Gas Exchange by Diffusion

Occurs at alveoli and tissues

Depends on:
Partial pressure gradients: pO2 and pCO2
​ ​

Gas solubility
Thickness of diffusion surface

Direction of diffusion:
O2 : alveoli → deoxygenated blood → tissues
​

CO2 : tissues → oxygenated blood → alveoli

​

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Transport of Gases in Blood

Gas Transport Form Location & Notes

Conditions

Oxygen Mainly as oxyhaemoglobin Binds to Dissociates at tissues

haemoglobin in (low pO2 , high pCO2 ,
​ ​

alveoli (high pO2 ) ​

high H+ )

Carbon 70% as bicarbonate ( In tissues (high 20-25% as

Dioxide HCO− 3 ) via carbonic
​ pCO2 ), CO₂ enters
​
carbamino-
anhydrase enzyme blood haemoglobin

20-25% bound to Released in alveoli

haemoglobin (low pCO2 , high
​

pO2 )
​

Respiratory Regulation

Respiratory centre: Located in medulla oblongata

Pneumotaxic centre: Located in pons; modulates breathing rate
Chemosensitive area: In medulla; responds to chemical changes (e.g., pCO2 levels) ​

1. Define vital capacity. What is its significance?

2. State the volume of air remaining in the lungs after normal breathing.

3. Why does diffusion of gases occur only in the alveolar region and not in other parts
of the respiratory system?

4. What are the major transport mechanisms for CO2 ? Explain. ​

5. Compare pO2 and pCO2 in atmospheric air and alveolar air:

​ ​

(i) pO2 lesser, pCO2 higher

​ ​

(ii) pO2 higher, pCO2 lesser

​ ​

(iii) pO2 higher, pCO2 higher

​ ​

(iv) pO2 lesser, pCO2 lesser

​ ​

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6. Explain the process of inspiration under normal conditions.

7. How is respiration regulated?

8. What is the effect of pCO2 on oxygen transport?

​

9. What happens to the respiratory process when a person goes up a hill?

10. What is the site of gaseous exchange in an insect?

11. Define oxygen dissociation curve. Suggest reasons for its sigmoidal pattern.

12. What is hypoxia? Research and discuss.

13. Distinguish between:

(a) IRV and ERV

(b) Inspiratory capacity and Expiratory capacity
© Vital capacity and Total lung capacity

14. What is Tidal volume? Find the approximate tidal volume for a healthy human in an
hour.

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