INTRODUCTION TO

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
AND CIVIL ENGINEERING
(GCEST104)

MODULE - Iv
 SYLLABUS
Conventional construction materials: Brick, stone, sand, cement and timber-
Classifications, Qualities, Tests and Uses of construction materials.
Cement concrete: Constituent materials, properties and types.
Tests on fresh and hardened concrete: slump test, cube compressive strength test
as per IS Codes.
Steel: Structural steel sections and steel reinforcements - types and uses.
Soil: Origin of soil-weathering of rocks, types of weathering

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 2

 CONVENTIONAL
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
 BRICKS
• Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by
drying and burning these blocks
• As bricks are of uniform size, they can be properly arranged & as they are light in weight,
no lifting appliance is required
• Bricks do not require dressing & the art of laying is so simple that brickwork can be
carried out even with the help of unskilled labourers
• Traditional bricks are those which have not been standardized in
size & the dimensions of traditional bricks vary from place to place
• Modular bricks confirm to the size laid down by Bureau of Indian
Standards – 19 x 9 x 9 cm
• With mortar thickness, known as nominal size of the modular
bricks - 20 x 10 x 10 cm
• Average weight of a brick is about 3 to 3.5kg
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 4
 BRICKS Contd…
CONSTITUENTS OF GOOD BRICK EARTH:
i. Alumina - 20-30%
• Absorbs water & imparts plasticity (quality of being easily shaped or moulded) to the clay
• If excess, raw bricks will shrink during drying and burning
ii. Silica - 50-60%
• Prevents shrinkage, cracking & warping; provides durability
• If excess, more brittle
iii. Lime < 5%
• Enables the sand particles to melt during burning
iv. Oxide of Iron – 5-6%
• Help to bind the particles in the burning process & imparts red colour to bricks
v. Magnesia < 2%
• Imparts yellow colour to bricks
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 5
 BRICKS Contd…
MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS

• Removal of loose soil • Digging, spreading & cleaning

Preparation
of brick
• Weathering • Blending & temporing
earth

• Giving the shape of bricks to the earth

Moulding
of bricks
• Hand moulding for small scale & machine moulding for large scale

• Bricks are stacked in a row and dried under sunlight (natural drying) for
Drying of
bricks
a period of 5 to 12 days

• Bricks are burnt in clamps or kilns; to impart hardness & durability

Burning of
bricks • Clamps - temporary structures; kilns – permanent structures

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 6

 BRICKS Contd…
CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS:
1. Unburnt or sundried bricks
• Dried under sunlight & used for temporary and cheap constructions
2. Burnt bricks - First class bricks, Second class bricks, Third class bricks & Fourth
class bricks (over burnt bricks)

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 7

 BRICKS Contd…
First class bricks
• Machine moulded or table moulded & well burnt in kilns
• Rectangular shape with sharp edges & uniform size
• Free from cracks & crushing strength not less than 10.5 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
• Water absorption not greater than 20%
• Used for superior quality works such as outer walls, facing works
Second class bricks
• Ground moulded & burnt in kilns
• Rectangular shape with sharp edges but slight irregularities in the size
• Free from cracks & crushing strength not less than 7 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2
• Water absorption not greater than 22%
• Used for internal walls & should be plastered
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 8
 BRICKS Contd…
Third class bricks
• Ground moulded & may not have regular shape and size
• Slightly overburnt or underburnt
• Produce dull sound when struck with each other
• Water absorption not greater than 24%
• Minimum crushing strength 3.5 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2
• Used for unimportant and temporary works
Fourth class bricks
• Ground moulded & overburnt
• Irregular shape and size
• Dark and brittle
• Not used in normal construction works
• Used as aggregate in concrete & for flooring
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 9
 BRICKS Contd…
Special types of bricks
• Face bricks – having uniform colour, texture, size – used for face works,
sometimes contain some face design – garden walls, steps, exposed works
• Fire bricks – used for lining furnaces, fire places, etc. - where high temperature is
there and ordinary bricks get decomposed
• Glazed & coloured bricks – one surface glazed in colour – exterior surfaces of
walls in hospitals, dairies, where cleanliness is important
• Imitation bricks – made of cement & sand – construction of compound wall
• Channel bricks – moulded to the shape of a gutter or a channel & are glazed to
prevent sediment deposition – used to function as drains
• Coping bricks – used to prevent entry of rainwater to the structure; made to suit
the thickness of walls on which coping is to be provided

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 10

 BRICKS Contd…
Special types of bricks (contd…)
• Hollow bricks – or cavity bricks – light in weight – reduce the transmission of heat
• Paving bricks – made from clay containing high % of iron – such bricks resist the
abrasive action of traffic – used for foot paths or garden walks
• Perforated bricks – contain cylindrical holes - light in weight – thermally insulated
• Bull nose bricks – used where sharp corners of the wall are not required
• Cow nose bricks – used in the construction of brick pillars when smooth corners
are required
• Hollow block bricks – made with 6mm coarse aggregates, cement and sand –
hollow spaces inside – compound wall construction
• Solid block bricks – made with 6mm coarse aggregates, cement & sand –
construction of multi storied structures
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 11
 BRICKS Contd…
PROPERTIES/QUALITIES OF GOOD BRICKS:
• Bricks should be well-burnt in kilns, uniform copper coloured, free from cracks & with sharp & square
edges
• Should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size
• Should give clear ringing sound when struck with each other
• When broken, should show homogeneous & compact structure
• Should not absorb water more than 20% by weight for first class bricks and 22% for second class bricks,
when soaked in cold water for 24 hours
• Should be hard, i.e., when scratched with finger nail, no impression should be there on bricks
• Should not break when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about 1m
• Should have low thermal conductivity & should be sound proof
• Should not show any white or grey deposits of salts when immersed in water and dried – efflorescence
• Should not have crushing strength below 3.5 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 12
 BRICKS Contd…
Tests on bricks
i. Crushing strength(Compressive strength) test
• Brick is placed in the compression testing machine(CTM)
• The load is applied till it breaks & maximum load is noted
• Compressive strength is obtained by dividing the load by the
area of face of the brick
• Minimum compressive strength is 3.5 𝑵Τ𝒎𝒎𝟐 ;
For superior ones, 7 – 14 𝑁 Τ𝑚𝑚2
ii. ` Presence of soluble salts
• Brick is immersed in water for 24 hours
• It is taken out and dried in shade
• If white patches are seen on surface, then it shows the presence of soluble salts
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 13
 BRICKS Contd…
Tests on bricks
iii. Water absorption test
• To find out the amount of water absorbed by the brick
• Brick is taken and weighed
• Dipped in water for 16-24 hours, then it is taken out & weighed
• The increase in weight is expressed as percentage of water absorption
• Permissible value is 20%
iv. Hardness test
• A scratch is made by finger nail – no impression is left if the brick is hard
v. Soundness test
• Two bricks knocked with each other, should not break and should give a clear ringing
sound

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 14

 BRICKS Contd…
Tests on bricks
vi. Toughness test
• A brick is dropped flat from 1m height on a firm ground - will not break if it is
sufficiently tough
vii. Shape and size
• Bricks should be of standard size & truly rectangular in shape
• 20 bricks are randomly selected and stacked
• Length should be 3680 – 3920mm; Width – 1740 – 1860mm; Height - 1740 –
1860mm
viii. Structure
• If broken, it should be homogeneous, compact and free from holes and lumps

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 15

 BRICKS Contd…
USES OF BRICKS:
• Used for construction of walls, foundations of structures, bridges, dams etc.
• Used in paving and road works
• Firebricks are used for furnaces, chimneys, etc.
• Used for ornamental works
• The first class and second class bricks are widely used for all sorts of sound work especially of permanent nature.
These structures include building, dams, roads, sewers, bridge piers, tunnels, pitching works, etc.
• The use of first class bricks is specified for obtaining the architectural effects on faces of structures where they are
to be kept exposed for beauty.
• The masonry with second class bricks is generally plastered to make the surface smooth. The mortar required in
brick masonry using second class bricks will also be more.
• The third class and sun-dried bricks are used for construction work of temporary nature. These bricks are not used
in damp situations or at places subjected to heavy rains.
• The fourth class bricks are used as road metal and as aggregates in the foundation concrete.
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 16
 STONES
• One of the popular building materials from the olden days, due to their availability in
abundance from the natural rocks
• The stones which are suitable for the construction of the structures such as retaining
walls, abutments, dams, roads, etc. are known as building stones
• Building stones should possess enough strength and durability
Natural bed of stones
• The building stones are obtained from rocks
• These rocks have a distinct plane of division along which stones can easily be split
• This plane is known as natural bed of stones
• In stone masonry, the general rule is that the direction of natural bed should be
perpendicular to the direction of pressure
• Such an arrangement gives maximum strength to stonework
Classification : Classified based on geological, chemical & physical characteristics
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 17
 STONES Contd…
Type of
Classified into: Description Examples
classification
Granite, Basalt, Trap,
Igneous rocks Rocks formed by cooling of magma
Pegmatite, Dolerite
Geological Sedimentary Rocks formed by deposition of products of weathering Sandstone, Limestone,
classification rocks on pre-existing rocks Shale, Laterite, Lignite
Metamorphic Rocks formed by change in character of pre-existing Gneiss, Marble,
rocks rocks subjected to great heat and pressure Quartzite, Slate
Siliceous rocks Silica is predominant Granite, Quartzite
Chemical
Argillaceous rocks Clay is predominant Slate, Laterite, Shale
classification
Calcareous rocks Calcium carbonate is predominant Marble, Limestone
These rocks have planes of stratification; can be easily
Stratified rocks Sedimentary rocks
split up along these planes
Physical These rocks are crystalline granular or compact granular;
Unstratified rocks Igneous rocks
classification no stratification
These rocks have a tendency to split along a definite
Foliated rocks Metamorphic rocks
direction only
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 18
 STONES Contd…
Quarrying
• Quarry : A place where exposed surface of good quality natural rocks are available in
abundant
• Quarrying : Process of taking out stones from natural bed
• Methods of quarrying:
➢Digging by hand tools – Soft stones are dug out with hand tools
➢Heating – Suitable for stratified stones (rocks formed with layers) – top surface is
heated – stones crack due to unequal expansion
➢Wedging – Steel wedges inserted into natural cracks & driven by hammers; stones
are broken out – for artificial cracks, plugs & feathers are used
➢Blasting – For stones which are hard and compact & having no cracks or fissures –
Explosives like dynamite are kept into holes driven, fuse wire inserted with one end
projecting out, fuse is fired – Stones explode into pieces
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 19
 STONES Contd…
Dressing of stones
• The stones obtained from quarry are to be cut into suitable sizes and shapes-
known as dressing of stones
• Carried out to – make the transport from quarry easy & economical – get desired
appearance for stonework – suit requirements of stone masonry
• Different stages - sizing, shaping, plaining, finishing & polishing
• Types – Hammer dressing, chisel drafting, Fine tooling, Rough tooling, Punched
dressing, closed picked dressing

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 20

 STONES Contd…
The main uses of stone as a building material are:
• As a principal material for foundation of civil engineering works, and for the construction
of walls, arches, abutments and dams
• In stone masonry; in places where it is naturally available
• As coarse aggregate in cement concrete (crushed form of rock)
• Sandstone which is beautifully patterned, but not so hard, is used for garden walls and
paths in landscaping
• Crushed rocks are used for road base paving
• To build wells
• Roof tile in the form of slates
• Limestone used for the manufacture of Portland Cement
• Marble is used in construction industry, for aesthetic purposes, beautification & strength
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 21
 STONES Contd…
Common building stones & uses:
• Granite– hard & durable; high strength, good weathering qualities; available in
different colours; used for facing work, construction of sea walls, bridge piers,
floor covering material, etc.
• Laterite – enriched in iron & aluminium causes the red-brown colour; used for
masonry works
• Limestone – not suitable as building stone, but used as road aggregates & also
for the manufacture of cement
• Sandstone – available in many colours, light coloured is more durable; used for
steps, ashlar masonry works, facing work, carving works, columns, etc.
• Marble - available in many colours; ornamental stone; for flooring, steps, wall
linings, electrical switch boards, table slabs, columns, etc.

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 22

 STONES Contd…
• Basalt or trap– heavier & darker than granite, but may contain cavities and pores
within them; used for rubble masonry, foundation works, aggregate in concrete,
etc.
• Slate – smooth; used as roofing material, paving stone, insulating material
• Gneiss – looks like granite, but may be rich in mica & useless as a building stone;
used for street paving rough stone masonry work
• Kankar – impure limestone; used as road metal
• Quartzite – dense & strong stone; used in rubble masonry, aggregates for
concrete, road metal/ railway ballast, heavy constructions like retaining walls,
bridge piers, dams, etc.

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 23

 STONES Contd…
Qualities of good building stone:
• Should have minimum crushing strength of 100 N/mm²
• Should preserve the colour uniformly for a long time
• Should possess good appearance
• Should be durable
• Should possess good fire resistance property
• Should not contain any soluble matter
• Should possess good facility for carving
• Should have compact structure free from cavity and cracks
• Should be well seasoned before use (6-12 months)

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 24

 STONES Contd…
Qualities of good building stone: (contd…)
• Should have sufficient hardness; minimum coefficient of hardenss-14
• Percentage wear should be less than 3%
• Specific gravity should be greater than 2.7
• Should have high impact value; Toughness index should be greater than 13
• Water absorption should be less than 0.6
• Should possess better weathering qualities – resistance to weathering agencies
like rain, frost, wind etc.

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 25

 STONES Contd…
Tests on stones
1. Acid test
• To determine the presence of 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 and hence identify weathering quality
• A sample of stone weighing about 50 to 100 gm is placed in a solution of
hydrochloric acid having strength of 1% and kept for 7 days; The solution is
agitated at intervals
• A good building stone maintains its sharp edges and keeps its surface free from
powder at the end of this period

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 26

 STONES Contd…
Tests on stones
2. Attrition test
• To find out the rate of wear of stones used in road construction
• Sample of stone is broken into pieces of about 60 mm size. Such pieces, weighing
5 kg, are put in the cylinders of Deval's attrition test machine, rotated for 5 hours
at the rate of 30 rpm
• After this period, the contents are taken out and sieved through a 1.50 mm sieve
• The quantity of material which is retained on the sieve is weighed
loss in weight
• Percentage wear = x 100
initial weight

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 27

 STONES Contd…
Tests on stones
3. Crushing test
• To find out the compressive strength of stones
• The sample of stone is cut into cubes of size 40 mmx 40 mm x 40 mm; placed in
water for about 72 hours prior to test
• Load is applied axially on the cube in a compression testing machine; rate of
loading is 140 kg per cm² per minute
• The crushing strength is the maximum load at which the sample crushes or fails
divided by the area of the bearing face of the specimen.

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 28

 STONES Contd…
Tests on stones
4. Smith's test
• To find out the presence of soluble matter
• Few chips of stones are taken and placed in a glass tube; this tube is then filled
with clear water.
• After about an hour, the tube is vigorously stirred or shaken.
• If water remains clear, the stone will be durable and free from any soluble matter.
• If the water becomes dirty, it indicates that the stone contains too much of
soluble earthy and mineral matters.

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 29

 STONES Contd…
Tests on stones
5. Water absorption test
• To find out the amount of water absorbed by stones
• From the given sample of stone, a cube weighing about 50 gm is prepared. Its
actual weight is recorded
• The cube is then immersed in distilled water for a period of 24 hours
• The cube is taken out of water and surface water is wiped off with a damp cloth
and weighed again
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟−𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
• 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
× 100

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 30

 STONES Contd…
Tests on stones
6. Freezing and thawing test
• To determine resistance to environmental factors
• The specimen of stone is kept immersed in water for 24 hours.
• It is then placed in a freezing mixture at -12°C for 24 hours.
• It is then thawed or warmed at atmospheric temperature. This should be done in
shade to prevent any effect due to wind, sun rays, rain, etc.
• Such a procedure is repeated several times and behaviour of stone is carefully
observed.

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 31

 AGGREGATES
• The granular materials chemically inert such as natural sand, gravel or crushed
stones are called aggregates
• Used as filler materials in concrete & give more strength to concrete
• Classified into two: fine aggregates & coarse aggregates

• As per IS 383:1963, fine aggregates are aggregates which passes through 4.75mm
IS sieve, i.e., size less than 4.75mm & coarse aggregates are aggregates which
retained on 4.75mm IS sieve, i.e., size greater than 4.75mm
• Fineness modulus of an aggregate is an index number which is roughly
proportional to the average size of the particles in the aggregate
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 32
 AGGREGATES Contd…
• Grading of aggregates means the proportions of specified size of
aggregates distributed in the sample of aggregates, so that it is easy
to pack together; the smaller particles can occupy the voids between
the larger particles
• Sieve Analysis – determining the proportions of the particles in an
aggregate by sieving on various IS sieves, like 80mm, 40mm, 20mm,
10mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600micron, 300micron,
150micron, 75micron
• In sieve analysis, a known weight of dry aggregates is sieved through
the set of IS sieves specified
• The sum of cumulative % of residue retained on each of IS sieves
(80mm to 150 micron) divided by 100 is known as fineness modulus
• Higher the fineness modulus, coarser the particle size
• Fineness modulus is determined by sieve analysis
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 33
 SAND
• Sand – rounded to angular shaped; bulky; hard rock particle– passing 4.75mm IS
sieve but retained on 75micron IS sieve
• Three categories: coarse sand - 4.75mm to 2mm (Fineness modulus: 2.9-3.2)
medium sand - 2mm to 425micron (Fineness modulus:2.6-2.9)
fine sand - 425micron to 75micron (Fineness modulus:2.2-2.6))
• Sand is a fine aggregate which is used in mortars and in concrete
• Two types: Natural sand & Crushed stone sand
• Natural sand – formed by natural disintegration of rocks & deposited in the river
bed
• Crushed stone sand – made by crushing of rocks
• Types of sand based on sources: River sand, Pit sand & Sea sand

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 34

 SAND Contd…
Uses of Sand
• Used in cement mortar and lime mortar for stone masonry and brick masonry
• Sand acts as an adulterant, the bulk or volume of mortar or concrete is increased
which results in reduction of cost; prevents excessive shrinkage of mortar; provides
more surface area for spreading and adhering of binding material
• Used in plain cement concrete, reinforced cement concrete, precast concrete, pre-
stressed concrete etc.
• Coarse sand used in masonry
• Fine sand used in plastering
• Sand serves as drainage material, hence used in filtration plants, filling behind
retaining walls, around foundation, filling well foundation, filter to drain seepage
water from earthen dams
• Used below flooring material to provide level and hard surface
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 35
 SAND Contd…
Qualities/Properties of good sand
• It should be light grey in colour and free from silt
• It should be free from organic impurities
• It should not contain any harmful materials which may affect the strength of
concrete and steel reinforcement
• It should have coarse, angular, hard and sharp grains
• It should be well graded
• It should be free from hygroscopic salts
• It should be chemically inert
• It should be strong and durable
• Loss of weight due to ignition should be less than 0.25%
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 36
 SAND Contd…
Tests for sand
• Presence of clay: Sand is placed in a glass of water, shaken vigorously and allowed
to settle. If clay is present, its distinct layer is formed at the top of sand
• Presence of organic impurities: Solution of sodium hydroxide or caustic soda is
added to sand and stirred; colour changes to brown if organic matter is present
• Presence of salts: Known from the taste of sand
• Presence of earthy matter: Sand is taken and rubbed against fingers; if fingers are
stained, earthy matter is preent
• Colour, size and sharpness of grains may be examined by observing with eye and
touching
• Sieve analysis: To find out gradation of sand. Fineness modulus is calculated from
sieve analysis (write the procedure for sieve analysis)
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 37
 CEMENT
• A cement is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and
adheres to other materials to bind them together
• It is a product obtained by burning a well-proportioned mixture of siliceous,
argillaceous and calcareous materials and crushing the same into a fine powder
• The most common type of artificial cement – Ordinary Portland Cement(OPC)
• It has cohesive & adhesive properties; & it solidifies when mixed with water
• Ingredients – Lime - 60-67% - provides binding property, strength & soundness
(soundness is the ability of a hardened paste to retain its volume after setting),
Silica -17-25% - strength, Alumina - 3-8% - quick setting, CaSO𝟒 - 0.1-0.5% -
increase initial setting time(gypsum), Iron Oxide – 0.5-6%- colour & hardness,
Magnesia - 0.1-4%- colour & hardness, Sulphur Trioxide – 1-2.75%- soundness

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 38

Manufacture of cement
CEMENT Contd…

1. Mixing of raw materials

• Dry process
• Wet process
2. Burning
• Rotary Kiln
• Clinkers are formed
3. Grinding
• Grinding of clinkers in ball mills or tube mills
• Gypsum is added

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 39

Setting of cement
CEMENT Contd…

• It is the reaction of cement with water

• When reacts with water, various chemical compounds are formed:
• Tricalcium silicate - within a week
• Dicalcium silicate - long term strength
• Tricalcium aluminate - within 24hours
• Tetracalcium aluminoferrate - within 24hours
• The complex compounds are called Bogue’s compounds
• Setting time – Initial setting time & final setting time
• Initial setting time – time when water added to the cement to the time when it
starts losing its plasticity
• Final setting time – time when water added to the cement to the time when it
completely loses its plasticity
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 40
 CEMENT Contd…
Grades of cement-OPC
• Based on the compressive strength, OPC is available in three grades: 33 grade
cement, 43 grade cement & 53 grade cement
• 33 means it has 28 day compressive strength equivalent to or more than
33N/mm²
• Compressive strength is obtained by testing a cube of side 7.06cm, of cement
mortar in the ratio 1:3, after 28 days of casting

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 41

 CEMENT Contd…
Uses of cement
• Used in the preparation of cement mortar, cement concrete and reinforced cement concrete(RCC)
• Cement mortar is a binding material in brick and stone masonries
• Cement mortar is used to cover the surfaces of masonry and other structural members
• Cement mortar is used for pointing of brick and stone masonries
• Cement mortar is used for various type of floors & floor finishes
• For decorative and aesthetic works which use cement mortar
• Cement is used in the manufacture of pipes and posts
• Cement is used for RCC structures such as slab, columns, foundations, water tanks, bridge, dams,
railway sleepers, foundations, etc.
• Cement is used in the manufacture of cement products like asbestos cement sheets, hollow
blocks & concrete blocks
• Constructing precast structures
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 42
 CEMENT Contd…
Properties of cement (OPC)
i. The colour of cement should be uniform – grey colour with greenish shade
ii. The cement should be free from lumps
iii. It should be cool, when felt with hand
iv. If a small quantity of cement is thrown into a bucket of water, it should sink
v. Average compressive strength of cement mortar cube of side 7.06cm should not be less than
16N/mm² at 3days and 22N/mm² at 7days
vi. Average tensile strength of cement mortar should not be less than 2N/mm² at 3days and
2.5N/mm² at 7days
vii. The initial setting time of cement should not be less than 30 minutes and final setting time
should not be greater than 10 hours
viii. Fineness of cement should be less than 10% in sieve test, specific surface area should be more
than 2250 cm²/gm (Fineness is the measure of size of cement particles)
ix. Soundness of cement (ability of a hardened paste to retain its volume) should be less than
10mm
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 43
 CEMENT Contd…
Tests on cement – Field tests and Lab tests
Field tests or Onsite tests
• The colour of cement should be uniform
• The cement should be free from lumps; such lumps are formed due to the
absorption of moisture
• It should be cool, when felt with hand
• If a small quantity of cement is thrown into a bucket of water, it should sink
• Strength – a thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of thick glass
and is kept under water for 24 hours and it should set and not crack

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 44

 CEMENT Contd…
Lab tests
i. Fineness test
• Carried out to check proper grinding of cement - sieve test
• The cement weighing 100gm is taken and it is continuously sieved for 15 minutes in IS
sieve no.9 (90micron)
• The residue is weighed and should be less than 10% of original weight
ii. Compressive strength test
• The cubes of size 7.06cm is prepared using mortar of 1:3 proportion of cement and sand
with water
• The mortar is placed in moulds and vibrated for 2 minutes
• After 24 hours the specimens are submerged in water for curing
• At the end of 3 days and 7 days the specimens are tested for its compressive strength

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 45

 CEMENT Contd…
Lab tests (Contd…)

iii. Tensile strength test

• Cement mortar in the ratio 1:3 is prepared and
filled in 12 briquette moulds
• Briquettes are removed from moulds after 24
hours and submerged in water for curing
• 6 briquettes each are tested in testing machine
at the end of 3 days and 7 days by loading at
the rate of 35 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2
• Failure load is noted and tensile strength is
calculated by dividing failure load by least
cross sectional area (6.45 𝑐𝑚2 )

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 46

 CEMENT Contd…
Lab tests (Contd…)

iv. Consistency test

• Used to determine the percentage of water required for preparing cement pastes
• Take 300gm of cement and add 30% of water by weight to it
• Mix it thoroughly and fill in the moulds of Vicat apparatus
• A plunger of 10mm diameter is attached at the end of movable rod and is gently
lowered on the sample
• If the settlement of the plunger is between 5 to 7mm from the bottom of the mould,
the water added is correct
• The process is repeated with varying % of water till the desired value is obtained

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 47

 CEMENT Contd…
Lab tests (Contd…)

v. Setting time test - initial and final setting times

• Used to detect the deterioration of cement due to storage
• Take 300gm of cement and add the % of water determined in consistency test
• Mix it thoroughly and fill in the moulds of Vicat apparatus
• A square needle of 1mm x 1mm is attached at the end of movable rod and is quickly released on
the sample, for initial setting time
• The process is repeated until the settlement of the needle is 5mm from the bottom of the mould
• Initial setting time- less than 30 minutes for ordinary cement
• The needle with annular collar is attached at the end of movable rod and is gently released on the
sample, for final setting time
• The time at which the needle makes an impression and the collar fails to do so is noted
• The final setting time should be 10 hours for ordinary cement
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 48
 CEMENT Contd…

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 49

 CEMENT Contd…
Types of cement
i. Ordinary Portland Cement - It has cohesive & adhesive properties; & it
solidifies when mixed with water; used for normal construction works
ii. Portland Pozzolona Cement– can resist attack by sea water better than OPC;
used in marine structures, hydraulic structures
iii. Portland Slag Cement – reduced heat of hydration, resistance to chemical
attack
iv. Rapid Hardening Cement – develops strength rapidly; used in prefabricated
constructions, road repair works, situations where the formwork is required to
be removed early, in cold weather climate
v. Quick Setting Cement – sets quickly; % of gypsum is reduced to decrease the
initial setting time of cement; used for under water construction

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 50

 CEMENT Contd…
Types of cement (contd…)
vi. Coloured Cement – obtained by adding pigments with OPC or white cement; used for
floor finishing works, plastering of walls, decorative works, manufacture of tiles
vii. White Cement – free from colouring agents; used for white washing and plasterwork,
floor finishing and pointing works, road and bridge markings
viii. Hydrophobic Cement – water repelling agents are added to protect the cement from
the effect of moisture during storage and transportation; manufactured under the
trade name Aqua-crete
ix. Acid Resisting Cement – resists the attack of acids; used for the construction of acid
resisting floors in factories
x. Sulphate Resisting Cement – OPC is easily attacked by sulphates, as a result, cracks are
formed; used for marine structures, sewage treatment structures

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 51

 CEMENT Contd…
Types of cement (contd…)
xi. High Alumina Cement – can withstand high temperature; used for making refractory
concrete and furnace lining
xii. Expansive Cement – OPC shrinks during setting and drying; while expansive cement
suffers hardly any change in volume during drying; used for concrete repair works,
cement grouting in prestress concrete ducts
xiii. Air Entraining Cement – air entraining agents are added; cement is more plastic &
workable
xiv. Oil Well Cement – in oil wells, cement slurry is used to seal off the space between
steel casing & sides of the well; slurry is to be pumped to very high depths; ordinary
cement sets before it reaches in position; oil well cement is made by adding retarders
& it is used to fill the gaps
xv. Low Heat Portland Cement – this offers a better resistance against chemical
deterioration; used for mass concrete works such as dams, retaining walls, etc
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 52
 TIMBER
• Oldest construction material
• Timber is the wood which is suitable for building or carpentry or other engineering purposes
• The timber was used in the raw form in ancient days; but now it is treated, preserved & used
• Timber is obtained from trees & trees are classified into two: Exogenous trees & Endogenous
trees
• Exogenous trees – grow outwards & increase in bulk by forming concentric rings – used for
engineering constructions –Teak, Sal, Pine
• Further classified into : conifers and deciduous trees
• Conifers yield soft wood, light in weight and weak – not used for construction
• Deciduous trees yield hard wood, strong, heavy, dark colour, colour, durable durable –
used for construction
• Endogenous trees – grow inwards by depositing each fresh layer of fibrous mass in
longitudinal direction - Bamboo, Cane

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 53

 TIMBER Contd…
Seasoning of timber
• When a tree is newly felled, it contains about 50% or more of its own dry weight
as water, which is in the form of sap and moisture
• The water is to be removed before the timber can be used for any engineering
purpose
• The process of drying of timber is known as seasoning of timber
• The moisture should be removed at a uniform rate from all parts of the timber
• If the drying is irregular, the shrinkage of timber will be irregular and due to this,
the timber warps
• Objectives – to impart hardness, stiffness, strength, better electrical resistance, to
maintain shape & size, to decrease weight, to make suitable for joinery works, to
make timber suitable for receiving treatment of paints, preservatives, varnishes
etc.
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 54
 TIMBER Contd…
Market forms of timber – available in the market as:
• Batten – timber piece whose breadth & thickness not to exceed 50mm
• Baulk – roughly squared timber
• Board – thickness less than 50mm with parallel sides
• Deal - thickness varies from 50 - 100mm with parallel sides
• End – short piece of Batten, deal, etc.
• Log – trunk of tree obtained after removing branches
• Plank – thickness less than 50mm & width exceeds 50mm with parallel sides
• Pole – long log of wood
• Quartering – square piece of timber
• Scantling – pieces of miscellaneous sizes of timber sawn out of a log
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 55
 TIMBER Contd…
Industrial timber – scientifically prepared in a factory; possess desired shape,
appearance, strength, etc.
• Veneers – thin sheets of wood, superior quality; thickness from 0.4 to 6mm
• Plywoods – boards prepared from veneers; 3 or more odd number of veneers
placed one above the other using adhesives
• Fibreboards – rigid boards; known as pressed wood; used as partitions, flooring
material, formwork for concrete
• Impreg timbers – timbers fully or partly covered with resin; cured with high
temperature not affected by moisture; used for furniture, decorative articles
• Compreg timbers - same as impreg timbers, but cured under pressure; strong &
durable

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 56

 TIMBER Contd…
Varieties of Timber
• Aini or Anjili - yellowish brown; close grained & strong; takes polish; suitable for
underwater works, building construction, furniture
• Arjun - colour is dark brown, heavy and strong; takes polish; beams, door frames, carts
• Babul – strong, hard, durable; takes good polish; bodies and wheels of bullock carts,
agricultural instruments
• Bakul – reddish brown; strong, hard, durable; building construction
• Bamboo – flexible, strong, durable; scaffolding, thatched roofs
• Deodar - yellowish brown; soft wood; cheap furniture, packing boxes
• Jack – colour is yellow & it darkens with age; plain furniture, boat construction, musical
instruments
• Mahagony – shining reddish brown; takes good polish; furniture, cabinet work,
ornamental work
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 57
 TIMBER Contd…
Varieties of Timber (contd…)
• Palms – dark brown; fibrous; strong, durable; furniture, roof covering
• Rosewood or Blackwood – dark; strong, handsome, takes good polish; furniture of
superior quality, ornamental work
• Satin wood - yellow; hard & durable; furniture and other ornamental works
• Sandal – white or red; pleasant smell; agricultural instruments, fancy goods,
boxes
• Teak – deep yellow to dark brown; durable & fire resistant; takes good polish; one
of the most valuable timber trees; house construction, ship building, furniture,
use is limited to superior quality work

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 58

 TIMBER Contd…
Qualities of a good Timber
• A freshly cut surface should exhibit hard and shining appearance
• Colour should preferably be dark, the light colour indicates timber with low
strength
• Should be free from serious defects such as knots, shakes, etc.
• Should be durable, capable of resisting the actions of fungi, chemicals, insects,
etc.
• Elasticity is an essential property when timber is used for bows, sport goods, etc.
• Should have straight fibres
• Should have better fire resistance
• Should be hard

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 59

 TIMBER Contd…
Qualities of a good Timber (contd…)
• Should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear
• A good timber should retain its shape during conversion or seasoning
• A good timber should give out a clear ringing sound when struck
• A good timber should be strong for working as a structural member
• The structure should be uniform
• A good timber should be tough enough to withstand shocks due to vibrations
• A good timber should have low water permeability
• A good timber should be able to withstand the weathering effects
• The timber with heavy weight is considered to be strong
• The timber should be easily workable
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 60
 TIMBER Contd…
Uses of Timber
• Used for door and window frames, shutters of doors and windows, roofing
materials, etc.
• Used for framework of cement concrete, centering, shuttering, scaffolding, etc.
• Used for making furniture, agricultural instruments, sport goods, musical
instruments, etc.
• Used for making railway coach, wagons
• Used for making toys, matches, etc.
• Used for railway sleepers, packing cases, etc.
• Used for temporary bridges and boat construction

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 61

 TIMBER Contd…
Tests on timber
• Major tests – Tests on full sized material
• Minor tests – Tests on small clear specimens
i. Moisture content test
• Take the timber specimen of cross section 5cm x 5cm and 2.4cm in length and
weigh it (𝑊1 )
• Oven-dry the specimen at a temperature of 103±2°C
• Record the weight of the specimen at regular intervals.
• Drying shall be considered completed when the variation between last two
weights does not exceed 0.002g. Record the last weight as dry weight (𝑊0 ).
𝑊1 −𝑊0
• Calculate percentage moisture content as x100
𝑊0
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 62
 TIMBER Contd…
Tests on timber (Contd…)
ii. Test for determination of volumetric shrinkage of timber
• To determine shrinkage of timber during seasoning
• Take a specimen with a cross section of 5cm x 5cm and 15cm in length and weigh
it.
• Determine the volume of specimen by immersion method. For this, a suitable
vessel half filled with water is weighed in grams. The timber specimen is then
dipped in the water and weighed again in grams. The difference in weight will
give the volume of specimen in 𝑐𝑚3 .
• Take out the specimen and oven dry it at a temperature of 103±2°C. Weigh it
periodically until a constant weight is reached.
• After oven drying, find out the volume of the specimen again by immersion
method (paraffin wax coating is used, volume of coating found out separately)
and find the difference in volume to get the volumetric shrinkage after drying.
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 63
 TIMBER Contd…
Tests on timber (Contd…)
iii. Compressive strength test
• Take a specimen with cross section of 5cm x 5cm and 20cm in length and place in the testing
machine.
• Apply load at a constant rate of 0.6mm per minute parallel to the grains (for compressive strength
parallel to grains); gradually increase the load.
• Note down the load at failure and calculate the compressive strength of the specimen
• Compressive strength = Load at failure/ Cross sectional area
iv. Tensile strength test
• Take a specimen with 5cm x 5cm cross sectional area and 20cm length.
• Place the specimen on the base plate of the instrument.
• Apply load parallel to grains (for tensile strength parallel to grains) at a constant rate of 1mm per
minute
• Note the maximum load at failure and calculate the tensile strength.
• Tensile strength = Maximum load applied / Cross sectional area
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 64
 TIMBER Contd…
Tests on timber (Contd…)

v. Bending strength test

• Take a specimen of cross section 5cm x 5cm and 75 cm in length
• For static bending – Load is applied continuously using a cylindrical loading
block in the testing machine
• For impact bending - Drop a hammer of weight 25 kg from a certain height.
• In both cases, note the load at failure and the deflection at the centre due to
bending
• Lastly using the load and deflection, calculate bending strength.

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 65

CEMENT CONCRETE
 CEMENT CONCRETE
• Cement Concrete (CC) is a mixture of cement, aggregates (coarse & fine) & water
CONSTITUENT MATERIALS
• Cement
➢Binding material
➢Ordinary Portland Cement is commonly used
• Aggregates
➢Form the bulk of concrete
➢Both fine and coarse aggregates are used
➢Should be chemically inert
• Water
➢Hydration takes place in the presence of water
➢Should be clean & free from harmful impurities such as oil, acid, alkali etc.
➢In general, water which is fit for drinking should be used to make concrete
• Admixtures: Added to improve certain qualities or change certain properties
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 67
 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
Properties
• It has high compressive strength
• It forms a hard surface; It hardens with age and the process of hardening continues
for a long time
• It is free from corrosion
• It is more economical than steel
• It binds easily with steel so that steel reinforcement can be placed in cement
concrete at suitable places to form RCC
• The final strength & quality of CC depends upon the ingredients used and local
conditions
• It has a tendency to be porous; so proper grading and water-cement ratio should be
adopted

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 68

 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
Properties of freshly prepared concrete

• Water-cement ratio
• Workability – The ease with which concrete can be mixed, transported, placed & compacted;
Workability suitable for mass concrete work is not necessarily be sufficient for thin sections
• Homogeneity
• Segregation– Separating out of the constituents of the mix during transportation; If the mix is too
wet, coarse aggregates will settle at the bottom; Decreases density & results in honeycombing &
finally reduction in strength
• Bleeding - Separation of water or mortar from freshly prepared concrete; appearance of water
along with cement particles on the surface after compaction
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 69
 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
Properties of hardened concrete
• Compressive strength
• Permeability - lesser the permeability, more the durability
• Durability- extended service life
• Shrinkage - volume decrease of concrete
• Creep deformations - Deformation of a concrete structure under sustained load
• Response to temperature variations
• Rate of strength gain
• Modulus of elasticity - Ratio of stress to strain; describes the tendency of an
object to deform along an axis when opposing forces are applied along that axis;
for concrete, it generally varies from 30 to 50 GPa

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 70

 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
Uses
• Construction material; Mass concrete structures such as dams, bridges, etc.
Decorative work; Road work; Flooring; Reinforced cement concrete; Pre cast
concrete; Prestressed concrete – Used in important engineering works where
strength and durability is of prime importance
Grades of concrete
• As per IS 456: 2000 - 𝑀15 , 𝑀20 , 𝑀25 , 𝑀30 ,
𝑀35 , 𝑀40 , 𝑀45
• Minimum grade for using as RCC is 𝑀20
• M stands for mix and the number specifies
the characteristic compressive strength of
15cm concrete cube tested after 28 days in
N/mm²

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 71

 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…

Grade of concrete Proportion Uses

𝑀5 1:5:10 Mass concrete works for strong walls &
foundations
𝑀7.5 1:4:8 Mass concrete works for strong walls &
foundations
𝑀10 1:3:6 Retaining walls, flooring
𝑀15 1:2:4 Plain Cement Concrete works
𝑀20 1:1.5:3 General RCC works - beams, stairs, columns
𝑀25 1:1:2 Water retaining structures, Piles, Precast
work
𝑀30 Design mix Heavily loaded RCC columns
𝑀35 Design mix Pre stress concrete works

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 72

 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
• Nominal mix – Mixes of fixed proportions like 1:2:4, 1:3:6, etc.
• Design mix – Mixes can be designed to produce a desired grade with desired
strength
• Water-Cement Ratio – Amount of water/Amount of cement
• Water – causes setting & hardening process; makes it workable
• Minimum w/c ratio – 0.5 to 0.6 times the weight of cement
• Processes involved in concreting are:
➢Batching
➢Mixing
➢Placing
➢Compacting
➢Curing
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 73
 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
• Batching – Process of measuring the correct quantities of cement, aggregates &
water for mixing and making concrete
• Volume batching (a box of dimensions 27x27x48 cm or 35 L volume is normally used)
• Weight batching
• Mixing – To blend the ingredients of concrete to a uniform mass - concrete
should be used within 20 min of adding water - mixing can be done by hand and
by machine (Continuous mixer & batch mixer)
• Placing – Concrete should be placed & compacted before setting starts – should
not be thrown from a height more than 1 m
• Compacting – Removal of voids in freshly laid concrete – Hand compaction
(ramming, tamping, spading) & Machine compaction (using vibrators)
• Curing – Keeping freshly placed concrete moist for a specific period
• Methods : Water curing, Steam curing, Membrane curing, Miscellaneous methods
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 74
 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
Types
i. Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) :
• Concrete is weak in carrying tension & steel reinforcing bars are incorporated in concrete
to take up tension– called RCC
• Plain concrete is very strong in compression but very weak in tension & steel is equally
strong in compression & tension
• Concrete develops a very good bond with steel, so it transmits the excessive stresses that
it cannot resist itself to the steel reinforcement
• Durable, fire resistant, impermeable to water & rigid
ii. Light weight concrete : When dead weight of the structure is to be reduced, light
weight aggregates are used to make concrete
iii. No fines concrete : Only coarse aggregates are used; saving of fine aggregates; all the
benefits of light weight concrete
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 75
 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
Types (contd…)
iv. Fibre reinforced concrete : Along with the normal ingredients, also consists of fibres in
various forms to increase strength
v. Pre-stressed concrete : Pretensioned wires are used in place of reinforcing bars which
will induce compressive stresses in concrete; cracks can be reduced
vi. Air entrained concrete : Air entraining agents are introduced to increase the
workability
vii. Coloured concrete : By adding colouring pigments; ornamental works & for special
works
viii. Vacuum concrete : Ingredients are same as ordinary concrete, but extra water is
removed by vacuum method after laying the concrete
ix. Reactive powder concrete : Highly refined silica fume is added to normal concrete to
get advanced mechanical properties; used in chemically aggressive environments
x. Pre-cast concrete : Factory made products like pipes, posts
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 76
 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
Pre-stressed concrete :
• Concrete in which reinforcement provided with initial
compressive stress
• Reinforcement is given in the form of wires or
tendons
• The steel wires are stretched initially to produce the
desired strength
• Development of cracks can be limited under working
load
• Less steel is used
• Self weight or dead load is less
• After the tendons are cut off from the anchor posts,
the tensioned tendons try to shorten, thus induce the
stresses to the concrete & it is prestressed
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 77
 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
Pre-cast concrete :
• Factory made products; eg : pipes, sleepers, posts, piles
• The moulds are prepared & reinforcement if any, is
placed
• The concrete is mixed & placed and cured well
• The products are then despatched for use at site of work
• The concrete of superior quality can be produced
• The work can be completed in a short time
• The precast structures can be easily dismantled
• But, if not properly handled, the units may be damaged
during transport

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 78

 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
Test on freshly prepared concrete
Workability by Slump test
• The test mould is a frustum of a cone, 20 cm diameter at bottom, 10 cm diameter at top and 30 cm in height
• The mould is open at top and bottom; It is placed on a flat, smooth and non-porous plate
• The mould is filled up in four equal layers and each layer is compacted twenty five times by 60 cm long and
16 mm diameter bullet pointed steel rod
• Top surface is smoothened by trowel and the mould is vertically lifted immediately without disturbing the
concrete
• The concrete is allowed to settle slowly & when the settlement ceases completely, the vertical settlement is
measured in centimeters. This is known as "slump” – the amount of subsidence
• Values of slump to be used for various works are:
(i) Plain concrete (Floor slab, etc.) - 25 mm to 40 mm
(ii) Reinforced concrete (Beam, slab etc.) - 50 mm to100 mm
(iii) Mass concrete - 25 mm to 50 mm

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 79

 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
Test on freshly prepared concrete (Contd…)

Slump test

Limitations of slump test

• Not suitable for concrete containing aggregates larger than 40 mm
• Not suitable for concrete of dry mix
• Not suitable for very wet concrete
• Not reliable because slump may be of any shape
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 80
 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
Test on hardened concrete
Compressive strength test
• The ability of hardened concrete cube to resist the compression loads applied on the
surface - Compressive strength of concrete
• Procedure: Concrete is prepared, cubes are casted and cured for a specific period,
compressive strength is found out using CTM
• Prepare the concrete using adequate quantity of ingredients and a proper water-cement
ratio
• Pour concrete into mould (steel mould 150mm x 150mm x 150mm) by proper
compaction with the help of a tamping rod. Finish the top surface as smooth using a
trowel
• Cover the mould with a gunny bag and place undisturbed for 24 hours at 27°C
• Remove the cube from the mould and immerse in water for 7 or 28 days based on the
test
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 81
 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
Test on hardened concrete (Contd…)

Compressive strength test

• Cube should be removed from water 30 minutes before the test and it should be in dried
condition
• Place the cube between the plates in the Compression Testing Machine (CTM)
• Apply the load gradually till the specimen breaks and note down the maximum load as
the crushing value of cube
• Repeat the process on minimum three cubes and note the average crushing value as the
compression value of the selected concrete batch
• Compression load divided by the surface area will give the compressive strength of
concrete
• Assume that the compression load is 375 kN. Cross sectional area = 15cm x 15cm
375
• Compressive strength = 𝑘𝑁/𝑐𝑚2
15 ×15
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 82
 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
Test on hardened concrete (Contd…)

Compressive strength test

• Compressive strength of different concrete grades is given below

Grade of cconcrete Mix Min. compressive strength Characteristic compressive
proportion (𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 ) at 7 days strength (𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 ) at 28 days

M15 1:2:4 10 15
M20 1:1.5:3 13.5 20
M25 1:1:2 17 25
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 83
 CEMENT CONCRETE Contd…
• The strength of concrete increases with age. The strength of concrete at different
ages in comparison with the strength at 28 days is shown below

Age Strength percent

1 day 16%
3 days 40%
7 days 65%
14 days 90%
28 days 99%

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 84

STEEL
 STEEL
• Most popular building material
• Alloy of Iron & Carbon; Carbon content varies from 0.1-1.5%; also contains other
alloying elements like Sulphur, Phosphorus, Manganese, Silicon, Chromium etc.
• Broadly divided into:
• Low alloy steels – Low carbon steel (Mild steel), Medium carbon steel, High carbon steel
• High alloy steels – Stainless steel, Tool steel

Type of steel Carbon content

Very low carbon steel/dead steel <0.1%
Mild steel/Low carbon steel 0.1-0.25%
Medium carbon steel 0.25-0.6%
High Carbon steel or Tor steel or Hard steel or HYSD (High Yield 0.6-1.25%
Strength Deformed) Bars
Extra Hard steel >1.25%

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 86

 STEEL Contd…
Mild Steel : Carbon content-0.1-0.25% (max), Sulphur-0.055%, Phosphorous - 0.055%
Properties of mild steel
• Its structure is fibrous with a dark bluish colour
• It is tough, elastic than cast iron and wrought iron
• It is malleable and ductile
• Permanent magnetization is possible
• It can be easily welded, riveted and forged
• Its specific gravity is 7.8
• It is equally strong in tension, compression and in shear
• It is difficult to harden and temper.

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 87

 STEEL Contd…
Uses of mild steel
• As rolled steel sections like angle, channel, plates, I, T and bar sections used in
construction works
• Mild steel round bars are used as steel reinforcements
• Mild steel tubes are used in construction
• Sheets made of mild steel are used as roof coverings
• Used in manufacture of various tools, machine parts and equipments

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 88

 STEEL Contd…
Medium Carbon steel
• Carbon content - 0.25 to 0.6%, manganese content - 0.60 to 1.65%
• Uses: shafts, axle gears, crankshafts, couplings and forgings; steel with carbon content 0.40 to
0.60% are also used for rails, railway wheels and rail axles
High Carbon steel
• Carbon content - 0.6 to 1.25%, manganese content - 0.30 to 1.5%
• Uses: cutting edges, compression springs, farming and gardening equipment, high wear
applications and high-strength wires
Hot rolled steel
• Manufactured by rolling hot steel when it is in semi solid state; temperature may be from 90 to
1250°C
Cold rolled steel
• Formed from sheets, plates or flats in rolling machines or by press breaking
• Used in car bodies, railway coaches & different types of steel structures
INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 89
 STEEL Contd…
Structural steel sections (Market forms of steel)
• Angle sections
➢Consists of two legs, which are of equal or unequal size
➢Specified as ISA (Indian Standard Angle); ISA 40x40x3 means size of two legs is 40mm and
thickness is 3 mm
➢Available in sizes from 20x20x3 to 200x200x25
➢Indian Standard Bulb Angle (ISBA) is another type of angle with a bulbed portion at the end
of the legs
➢Used in structural steel work especially in the fabrication of steel trusses

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 90

 STEEL Contd…
Structural steel sections (Market forms of steel) (contd…)
• Channel sections
➢Consist of a web with two equal flanges
➢ A channel section is designated by the height of the web and width of flange
➢These sections are available in sizes varying from 100mm x 45mm to 400mm x 100mm
➢Specifications: ISJC-Indian Standard Junior Channel, ISLC-Indian Standard Light Channel,
ISMC-Indian Standard Medium Channel, ISSC-Indian Standard Special Channel
➢Channel sections are widely used as structural members of the steel framed structures.
These are also used to make built up columns and truss members

INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGG - MODULE IV 91

 STEEL Contd…

Structural steel sections (Market forms of steel) (contd…)

• I-sections
➢Also known as Rolled Steel Joists (RSJ)
➢ Consists of two flanges connected by a web
➢Designated by overall depth, width of flange and weight per
metre length
➢Available sizes are 75x50 to 600x210mm
➢Specifications: ISJB-Indian Standard Junior Beam, ISLB-Indian
Standard Light Beam, ISMB-Indian Standard Medium
Beam, ISWB-Indian Standard Wide flange Beam, ISHB-Indian
Standard Heavy Beam
➢Used as beams, lintels, columns and members of steel frames
➢Used in grillage foundations, built up columns; very
economical in carrying lateral loads

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 STEEL Contd…
Structural steel sections (Market forms of steel) (contd…)
• T-sections
➢This section has a shape of letter T and it consists of flange and web
➢Designated by overall dimensions and thickness
➢ Specifications: ISNT-Indian Standard Normal Tee, ISHT-Indian Standard Heavy Tee,
ISWC-Indian Standard Wide Tee, ISST-Indian Standard Short Tee, ISMT-Indian Standard
Medium weight Tee
➢These sections are widely used as members of steel roof trusses and to form built up
sections.

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 STEEL Contd…
Structural steel sections (Market forms of steel) (contd…)
• Flat sections
➢Flat sections are plate like sections with more length and less width
➢Available from 3 to 40 mm thickness and 10 to 400mm width
➢Flat sections are used for grillwork, built up beams and columns. These are also used in plate
girder bridges
• Steel plates
➢Steel plates are specified with its thickness
➢Available in a maximum area of 30 m²
➢Steel plates of thickness 5mm to 50mm are used in the construction of industrial structures
➢ Steel plates of thickness less than 5 mm are called steel sheets
➢Used as column bases and flanges for columns. Also used in plate girder bridges and gantry
girders.

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 STEEL Contd…
Structural steel sections (Market forms of steel) (contd…)
• Corrugated sheets
➢Corrugated sheets are formed by passing steel sheets through grooves. These grooves bend
and press steel sheets and corrugations are formed on the sheets.
➢Corrugated sheets are usually galvanized and are referred as galvanized iron sheets or G.I.
sheets
➢Used for roof covering and cladding
• Round bars
➢Available in circular cross-sections with diameters varying from 5mm to 250 mm
➢Both solid and hollow sections are available. Hollow sections are called pipes
➢Denoted by ISRO (Indian Standard Round bars). ISRO 10 means the round solid bar with
10mm diameter
➢Round bars are widely used as reinforcement in concrete construction of steel grillage works,
etc.
➢The commonly used bars have diameters varying from 5mm to 32mm.
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 STEEL Contd…
Structural steel sections (Market forms of steel) (contd…)

Square bars
➢Square bars are available in square cross section
➢Both solid and hollow sections are available
➢Square bars are denoted with ISSQ (Indian Standard
Square bars); ISSQ 12 mean solid square bar with 12
mm side
➢These bars are widely used in the construction of
steel grill works, for windows and gates
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 STEEL Contd…
Built-up sections
• When single structural steel sections are not sufficient to provide the required
strength and stability for structural members, a combination of same or different
steel sections are joined together to form Built up steel sections

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 STEEL Contd…
Reinforcing bars
• The steel bars used in reinforced cement concrete - reinforcing bars or rebars
• Two types: Plain bars & deformed bars
• Plain bars (Mild steel bars) : Round sections made up of mild steel; available from 5mm to 32mm
• High Yield Strength Deformed bars (Tor steel bars) : Deformations are made on surface to ensure
proper bonding with concrete
➢Cold twisted deformed; manufactured as per the specifications of Tor steel Research
Foundation of India.
➢These bars have longitudinal ribs (small projections) in the form of continuous helix. There
are transverse ribs placed in between the longitudinal ribs. These help to produce high bond
strength due to interlocking between concrete and steel.
➢Yield strength of tor steel is higher than that of mild steel.
➢These are available in various size of diameter 5.5,6,8,10,12,16,18,22,25,32 and 40mm.
➢These are used for reinforced concrete works.

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 STEEL Contd…
Advantages of tor steel bars
• These bars have good bonding capabilities
• These can be used for major reinforcement works
• It has better structural properties
• The yield strength of these bars is high
• Substantial saving in reinforcement cost when these bars are used
• These can be bent for 180° without any cracks
• These bars can be welded
Grades : Mild steel bars- Fe250 (yield strength=250 MPa)
HYSD bars- Fe415, Fe 500 etc.

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 STEEL Contd…
❑ TMT steel bars
• TMT steel bars are generally used material in construction for enhanced
protection against earthquake and another type of natural disasters
• Heat treatment is a thermal process undergone by the steel in the solid state.
• TMT means Thermo Mechanical Treatment, which is a thermomechanical
process
• TMT bars are high-strength reinforcement bars having a tough outer core and a
soft inner core
• The sudden quenching and drastic change in temperature, involved in the
manufacturing process of TMT bars toughens the outer layer of the steel bar, thus
making it super tough and durable

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SOIL
 SOIL
• The term 'soil' is defined as an unconsolidated material, composed of solid
particles, produced by the disintegration of rocks
• The void space between the particles may contain air, water or both
• The solid particles may contain organic matter
• Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration or
chemical decomposition
• When a rock surface gets exposed to atmosphere for an appreciable time, it
disintegrates or decomposes into small particles and thus the soils are formed

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 SOIL Contd…

• Soil may be considered as an incidental material obtained from the geologic cycle
which goes on continuously in nature
• The geologic cycle consists of erosion, transportation, deposition and upheaval of
soil

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 SOIL Contd…

Origin of soil
Process of soil formation
• Parent material: The mineral from which the soil is formed; the parent material is
chemically or physically weathered and transported and deposited to form layers
• Carriers or weathering agents: glaciers, water, wind
• Weathering processes: freezing & melting, heating & cooling, wetting & drying,
grinding or rubbing, organisms
• Repeated processes result in the formation of cracks and crevices in rocks & in
presence of sun, the surface of rock expands and breaks into loose soil particles

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 SOIL Contd…
Weathering of rocks
• Weathering - a process of decay, disintegration and decomposition of rocks under
the influence of certain physical and chemical agencies
• The weathered product remains lying over and above or near to the parent rock
unless it is removed from there by some other agency of the nature
• Disintegration - the process of breaking up of rocks into small pieces by the
mechanical agencies of physical agents
• Decomposition - the process of breaking up of mineral constituents to form new
components by the chemical actions of the physical agents
• Denudation – the surface of the earth is worn away by the chemical and
mechanical actions and the lower layers are exposed

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 SOIL Contd…

Types of weathering
• Three types of weathering:
✓Physical or mechanical weathering
✓Chemical weathering
✓Biological weathering
• Physical weathering - the physical breakdown of rock masses under the attack
of certain atmospheric agents
• A single rock block is broken gradually into smaller irregular fragments and then
into particles of still smaller dimensions
• It is the most active in cold, dry and higher areas of the earth
• Surface temperature variations are responsible to a great extent of physical
weathering
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 SOIL Contd…
Forms of Physical Weathering
• Abrasion: Water carrying suspended rock fragments has a grinding action on
surfaces
• Wetting and Drying: Water penetrates into rocks and reacts with their constituent
material
• Freezing and Thawing: When water is trapped into the cracks in rocks repeatedly
freezing and thawing occurs results in forces of expansion and contraction
• Thermal Expansion and Contraction of Minerals: Rocks are composed of different
kinds of minerals; When heated up by solar radiation each different mineral will
expand and contract with surface temperature fluctuations.

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 SOIL Contd…
Forms of Physical Weathering (contd…)

• Crystallization: In an arid environment, water evaporates at the surface of rocks

and as a result, crystals form from dissolved minerals; Over time, the crystals
expand their volume and exert a force great enough to separate minerals grains
and break up rocks
• Action of Organisms: They aids in the physical disintegration of rocks
• Thermal Effects: The effect of change of temperature on rocks is of considerable
importance in arid and semi-arid regions where difference between daytime and
night time temperature is often very high; Such temperature fluctuations produce
physical disintegration in a normally expected manner

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 SOIL Contd…
Types of Chemical Weathering
• Solution: Some rocks contain one or more minerals which are soluble in water to some
extent. eg. Rock Salt, Gypsum and Calcite
• Hydration: Minerals absorb water and chemically change the composition of the material
• Hydrolysis: The process of exchange of ions are called hydrolysis
• Oxidation and Reduction: The ion bearing minerals of rocks are generally prone to
chemical weathering through the process of oxidation and reduction
• Oxidation: The process of addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen is called oxidation
• Reduction: The process of removal of oxygen or addition of hydrogen is called reduction
• Carbonation: Carbonation is the process of weathering of rocks under the combined
action of atmospheric carbon dioxide

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 SOIL Contd…
Biological Weathering or Organic weathering
• The weathering process related to the activities of micro organisms such as
bacteria as well as plants and animals
• Animals moving through cracks can break rocks
• Roots of plants

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