UNIT –V

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING

5.1 Plastic Deformation

When a material is stressed below its elastic limit, the resulting deformation or strain is temporary.
Removal of stress results in a gradual return of the object to its original dimensions. When a material
is stressed beyond its elastic limit, plastic or permanent deformation takes place, and it will not
return to its original shape by the application of force alone. The ability of a metal to undergo plastic
deformation is probably its most outstanding characteristic in comparison with other materials. All
shaping operations such as stamping, pressing, spinning, rolling, forging, drawing, and extruding
involve plastic deformation of metals. Various machining operations such as milling, turning,
sawing, and punching also involve plastic deformation. Plastic deformation may take place by :

Slip

Twinning

Combination of slip and twinning

Deformation by Slip:

If a single crystal of a metal is stressed in tension beyond its elastic limit, it elongates slightly, a step
appears on the surface indicating relative displacement of one part of the crystal with respect to the
rest, and the elongation stops. Increasing the load will cause another step. It is as if neighboring thin
sections of the crystal had slipped past one another like a sliding cards on a deck. Each successive
elongation requires a higher stress and results in the appearance of another step, which is actually the
intersection of a slip plane with the surface of the crystal. Progressive increase of the load eventually
causes the material to fracture.

Slip occurs in directions in which the atoms are most closely packed, since this requires the least
amount of energy.

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 Figure 5.1 The effect of slip on the lattice structure.

Figure 1 shows that when the plastic deformation is due to slip, the atoms move a whole interatomic
space (moving from one corner to another corner of the unit cell). This means that overall lattice
structure remains the same. Slip is observed as thin lines under the microscopes and these lines can
be removed by polishing.

Figure 5.2 Slip appears as thin lines under the microscope.

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 Figure 5.3 Slip lines in copper.

Deformation by Twinning:

When mechanical deformation is created by twinning, the lattice structure changes. The atoms move
only a fraction of an interatomic space and this leads to a rearrangement of the lattice structure.
Twinning is observed as wide bands under the microscope. These wide bands can not be removed by
polishing.

Two kinds of twins are of interest to the metallurgists:

1. Deformation or mechanical twins, most prevalent in close packed hexagonal metals (magnesium,
zinc, iron with large amount of ferrite)

2. Annealing twins, most prevalent in F.C.C. (Face centered cubic) metals (aluminum, copper, brass,
iron with austenite).These metals have been previously worked and heat treated. The twins are
formed because of a change in the normal growth mechanism.

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Figure 5.4 The effect of twinning on the lattice structure.

Figure 5.5 Twin bands

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 Figure 5.6. Twin bands in zinc.

Slip vs. Twinning:

Slip Twinning

Atomic movement Atoms move a whole number Atoms move fractional

of atomic spacing. atomic spacing.

Microscopic appearance Thin lines Wide bands or broad lines

Lattice orientation No change in lattice Lattice orientation changes.

orientation. The steps are Surface polishing will not
only visible on the surface of destroy the evidence of
the crystal and can be twinning.
removed by polishing. After
polishing there is no evidence
of slip.

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5.2 Fracture
Fracture is an inhomogeneous process of deformation that makes regions of material to separate and
load-carrying capacity to decrease to zero. It can be viewed on many levels, depending on the size of
the fractured region that is of interest. At the atomistic level fracture occurs over regions whose
dimensions are of the order of the atomic spacing (10-7 mm); at the microscopic level fracture occurs
over regions whose dimensions are of the order of the grain size (about 10 -3 mm); and at the
macroscopic level fracture occurs over dimensions that are of the order of the size of flaws or
notches (1 mm or greater).

At each level there are one or more criteria that describe the conditions under which fracture can
occur. For example, at the atomistic level fracture occurs when bonds between atoms are broken
across a fracture plane and new crack surface is created. This can occur by breaking bonds
perpendicular to the fracture plane, a process called cleavage, or by shearing bonds across the
fracture plane, a process called shear. At this level the fracture criteria are simple; fracture occurs
when the local stresses build up either to the theoretical cohesive strength σ c ≈ E/10 or to the
theoretical shear strength τc ≈ G/10, where E and G are the respective elastic and shear module.

The high stresses required to break atomic bonds are concentrated at the edges of inhomogeneities
that are called micro cracks or macro cracks (flaws, notches, cracks). At the microscopic and
macroscopic levels fracture results from the passage of a crack through a region of material. The
type of fracture that occurs is characterized by the type of crack responsible for the fracture.

Few structural materials are completely elastic; localized plastic strain usually precedes fracture,
even when the gross fracture strength is less than the gross yield strength. Fracture in these instances
is initiated when a critical amount of local plastic strain or plastic work occurs at the tin of a flaw.

From the principles of fracture mechanics it is possible to determine macroscopic fracture criteria in
terms of the nominal fracture strength, the flaw length, and the critical amount of plastic work
required to initiate unstable fracture -- the fracture toughness.

Types of Fracture That Occur Under Uniaxial Tensile Loading

Cleavage fractures occur when a cleavage crack spreads through a solid under a tensile component
of the externally applied stress. The material fractures because the concentrated tensile stresses at the
crack tip are able to break atomic bonds. In many crystalline materials certain crystallographic
planes of atoms are most easily separated by this process and these are called cleavage planes.

Under uniaxial tensile loading the crack tends to propagate perpendicularly to the tensile axis. When
viewed in profile, cleavage fractures appear "flat" or "square", and these terms are used to describe
them.

Most structural materials are polycrystalline. The orientation of the cleavage plane(s) in each grain
of the aggregate is usually not perpendicular to the applied stress so that, on a microscopic scale, the
fractures are not completely flat over distances larger than the grain size.

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In very brittle materials cleavage fractures can propagate continuously from one grain to the next.
However, in materials such as mild steel the macroscopic cleavage fracture is actually discontinuous
on a microscopic level; most of the grains fracture by cleavage but some of them fail in shear,
causing the cleaved grains to link together by tearing.

Shear fracture, which occurs by the shearing of atomic bonds, is actually a process of extremely
localized (inhomogeneous) plastic deformation. In crystalline solids, plastic deformation tends to be
confined to crystallographic planes of atoms which have a low resistance to shear. Shear fracture in
pure single crystals occurs when the two halves of the crystal slip apart on the crystallographic glide
planes that have the largest amount of shear stress resolved across them. When the shear occurs on
only one set of parallel planes, a slant fracture is formed.

In polycrystalline materials the advancing shear crack tends to follow the path of maximum resolved
shear stress. This path is determined by both the applied stress system and the presence of internal
stress concentrators such as voids, which are formed at the interface between impurity particles (e.g.,
nonmetallic inclusions) and the matrix material. Crack growth takes place by the formation of voids
and their subsequent coalescence by localized plastic strains.

Shear fracture in thick plates and round tensile bars of structural materials begins in the center of the
structure (necked region) and spreads outwards. The macroscopic fracture path is perpendicular to
the tensile axis. On a microscopic scale the fracture is quite jagged, since the crack advances by
shear failure (void coalescence) on alternating planes inclined at 30-45° to the tensile axis.

This form of fracture is commonly labeled normal rupture (since the fracture path is normal to the
tensile axis) or fibrous fracture (since the jagged fracture surface has a fibrous or silky appearance).
Normal rupture forms the central (flat) region of the familiar cup-cone pattern. The structure finally
fails by shear rupture (shear lip formation) on planes inclined at 45° to the tensile axis. This form of
fracture is less jagged, appears smoother, and occurs more rapidly than the normal rupture which
precedes it. Similarly noncleavage fracture in thin sheets of engineering materials occurs exclusively
by shear rupture and the fracture profile appears similar to the slant fracture.

Under certain conditions the boundary between adjacent grains in the poly-crystalline aggregate is
weaker than the fracture planes in the grains themselves. Fracture then occurs intergranularly, by one
of the processes mentioned above, rather than through the grains (transgranular fracture). Thus there
are six possible modes of fracture: transgranular cleavage, transgranular shear rupture, transgranular
normal rupture, and intergranular cleavage, intergranular shear rupture, intergranular normal rupture.

Fracture takes place by that mode which requires the least amount of local strain at the tip of the
advancing crack. Both the environmental fracture exclusively by one particular mode over a large
variety of conditions and the state of applied (nominal) stress mid strain determine the type of
fracture which occurs, and only a few materials and structures operating conditions (i.e., service
temperature, corrosive environment, and so on).

Furthermore, under any given condition more than one mode of fracture can cause failure of a
structural member and the fracture is described as "mixed". This implies that the relative ease of one
type of crack propagation can change, with respect to another type, as the overall fracture process
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lakes place. For example, normal rupture, cleavage, and shear rupture are all observed on the
fracture surfaces of notched mild steel specimens broken in impact at room temperature.

In order to analyze the fracture process under various types of stress systems, it is necessary to
establish a coordinate system with respect to both the fracture plane, the direction of crack
propagation, and the applied stress system.

One of the difficulties encountered by engineers and scientists who are interested in a particular
aspect of the fracture problem is the large mass of notation and coordinate systems used by other
workers who have investigated similar problems.

Three distinct modes of separation at the crack tip can occur:

 Mode I -- The tensile component of stress is applied in the y direction, normal to the faces of
the crack, either under plane-strain (thick plate, t large) or plane-stress (thin plate, t small)
conditions.
 Mode II -- The shear component of stress is applied normal to the leading edge of the crack
either under plane-strain or plane-stress conditions.
 Mode III -- The shear component of stress is applied parallel to the leading edge of the crack
(antiplane strain).

Summary

1. Fracture is an inhomogeneous form of deformation which can be viewed on different levels.

On an atomistic level it occurs by the breaking of atomic bonds, either perpendicular to a
plane (cleavage) or across a plane (shear). On a microscopic level cleavage occurs by the
formation and propagation of microcracks and the separation of grains along cleavage planes.
Shear fracture (rupture) usually occurs by the formation of voids within grains and the
separation of material between the voids by intense shear.

On a macroscopic level cleavage occurs when a cleavage crack spreads essentially

perpendicular to the axis of maximum tensile stress. Shear fracture occurs when a fibrous
crack advances essentially perpendicular to the axis of maximum tensile stress (normal
rupture) or along a plane of maximum shear stress (shear rupture).

Fracture is said to be transgranular when microcrack propagation and void

coalescence occur through the grains and intergranular when they occur along grain
boundaries. More than one mode of crack propagation can contribute to the fracture of a
structure. In general, cleavage fracture is favored by low temperatures.

2. Fracture occurs in a perfectly elastic solid when the stress level at the tip of a preinduced
flaw reaches the theoretical cohesive stress E/10 and a sufficient amount of work γ s is done to
break atomic bonds and create free surface.

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 3. When the yield stress of a material is less than E/10 (i.e., in a ductile material or in the
vicinity of a stopped crack in a partially brittle one), plastic flow occurs near the crack tip and
the stress level in the plastic zone is less than E/10. Consequently the crack cannot advance
directly as an elastic Griffith crack.

5.2 Tensile test

A tensile test, also known as tension test, is probably the most fundamental type of mechanical test
you can perform on material. Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully standardized.
By pulling on something, you will very quickly determine how the material will react to forces being
applied in tension. As the material is being pulled, you will find its strength along with how much it
will elongate.

Why Perform a Tensile Test or Tension Test?

You can learn a lot about a substance from tensile testing. As you continue to pull on the material
until it breaks, you will obtain a good, complete tensile profile. A curve will result showing how it
reacted to the forces being applied. The point of failure is of much interest and is typically called its
"Ultimate Strength" or UTS on the chart.

Hooke's Law

For most tensile testing of materials, you will notice that in the initial portion of the test, the
relationship between the applied force, or load, and the elongation the specimen exhibits is linear. In
this linear region, the line obeys the relationship defined as "Hooke's Law" where the ratio of stress
to strain is a constant, or . E is the slope of the line in this region where stress (σ) is
proportional to strain (ε) and is called the "Modulus of Elasticity" or "Young's Modulus".

Modulus of Elasticity

Select image to enlarge The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of the material, but it
only applies in the linear region of the curve. If a specimen is loaded within this linear region, the
material will return to its exact same condition if the load is removed. At the point that the curve is
no longer linear and deviates from the straight-line relationship, Hooke's Law no longer applies and
some permanent deformation occurs in the specimen. This point is called the "elastic, or
proportional, limit". From this point on in the tensile test, the material reacts plastically to any
further increase in load or stress. It will not return to its original, unstressed condition if the load
were removed.

Yield Strength

A value called "yield strength" of a material is defined as the stress applied to the material at which
plastic deformation starts to occur while the material is loaded.

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Offset Method

For some materials (e.g., metals and plastics), the departure from the linear elastic region cannot be
easily identified. Therefore, an offset method to determine the yield strength of the material tested is
allowed. These methods are discussed in ASTM E8 (metals) and D638 (plastics). An offset is
specified as a % of strain (for metals, usually 0.2% from E8 and sometimes for plastics a value of
2% is used). The stress (R) that is determined from the intersection point "r" when the line of the
linear elastic region (with slope equal to Modulus of Elasticity) is drawn from the offset "m"
becomes the Yield Strength by the offset method.

Alternate Moduli

The tensile curves of some materials do not have a very well-defined linear region. In these cases,
ASTM Standard E111 provides for alternative methods for determining the modulus of a material, as
well as Young's Modulus. These alternate moduli are the secant modulus and tangent modulus.

Strain

You will also be able to find the amount of stretch or elongation the specimen undergoes during
tensile testing This can be expressed as an absolute measurement in the change in length or as a
relative measurement called "strain". Strain itself can be expressed in two different ways, as
"engineering strain" and "true strain". Engineering strain is probably the easiest and the most
common expression of strain used. It is the ratio of the change in length to the original length,

Whereas, the true strain is similar but based on the instantaneous length of the specimen as the

test progresses, ,

where Li is the instantaneous length and L0 the initial length.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

One of the properties you can determine about a material is its ultimate tensile strength (UTS). This
is the maximum load the specimen sustains during the test. The UTS may or may not equate to the
strength at break. This all depends on what type of material you are testing. . .brittle, ductile, or a
substance that even exhibits both properties. And sometimes a material may be ductile when tested
in a lab, but, when placed in service and exposed to extreme cold temperatures, it may transition to
brittle behavior.

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5.3 Compression Test

A compression test determines behavior of materials under crushing loads. The specimen is
compressed and deformation at various loads is recorded. Compressive stress and strain are
calculated and plotted as a stress-strain diagram which is used to determine elastic limit, proportional
limit, yield point, yield strength and, for some materials, compressive strength.

Why Perform a Compression Test?

The ASM Handbook®, Volume 8, Mechanical Testing and Evaluation states: "Axial compression
testing is a useful procedure for measuring the plastic flow behavior and ductile fracture limits of a
material. Measuring the plastic flow behavior requires frictionless (homogenous compression) test
conditions, while measuring ductile fracture limits takes advantage of the barrel formation and
controlled stress and strain conditions at the equator of the barreled surface when compression is
carried out with friction.

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Axial compression testing is also useful for measurement of elastic and compressive fracture
properties of brittle materials or low-ductility materials. In any case, the use of specimens having
large L/D ratios should be avoided to prevent buckling and shearing modes of deformation 1."

The image at right shows variation of the strains during a compression test without friction
(homogenous compression) and with progressively higher levels of friction and decreasing aspect
ratio L/D (shown as h/d)1.

Modes of Deformation in Compression Testing

The figure to the right illustrates the modes of deformation in compression testing. (a) Buckling,
when L/D > 5. (b) Shearing, when L/D > 2.5. (c) Double barreling, when L/D > 2.0 and friction is
present at the contact surfaces. (d) Barreling, when L/D < 2.0 and friction is present at the contact
surfaces. (e) Homogenous compression, when L/D < 2.0 and no friction is present at the contact
surfaces. (f) Compressive instability due to work-softening material1.

Typical Materials

The following materials are typically subjected to a compression test.

Concrete
Metals
Plastics
Ceramics
Composites

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5.4 Charpy and Izod Pendulum Impact Test

In the beginning . . .

During the first part of the 20th century, a metallurgist named Izod invented an impact test for
determining the suitability of various metals to be used as cutting tools. The test involved a
pendulum with a known weight at the end of its arm swinging down and striking the specimen as it
stood clamped in a vertical position.

Some years later another metallurgist named Charpy modified the test slightly by orienting the
specimen in a horizontal fashion. These pendulum impact test methods proved to be very useful,
providing reliable, qualitative impact data throughout WWII up until the early 70's. It then became
apparent that higher velocities and impact energies could be achieved with vertical style drop towers
and thus the trend began to shift.

Pendulum machines remained popular with those testing to Izod and Charpy while more high speed,
product oriented impact applications became the dominion of the drop tower.

Specimens for Charpy and Izod Testing

While still used, pendulum impact testing has inherent weaknesses. In notched Izod testing, samples
are mounted in a vise fixture with the notch facing a pendulum. A weighted pendulum, fixed at a
point directly above the sample vise, is swung up and held stationary. This height and thus the speed
of the pendulum at impact is a constant for this test. When released, the pendulum swings through
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the path where the sample is fixed. As the sample breaks, energy is absorbed by the sample. The
height the pendulum attains after impact is measured by an indicator on a fixed scale which reads in
joules (ft-lb). The impact strength is the loss of momentum in the pendulum while breaking the
sample off at the notch.

The Izod pendulum test configuration served as the standard in impact testing in the plastics and
metals industry for many years. The problems with the Izod pendulum test involve several
parameters which can drastically alter the results if not strictly controlled.

First the radius of the notch is critical. It is meant to simulate conditions which might exist in
applications where the features such as internal corner on an enclosure will act as a stress
concentrator upon impact. In a pendulum test, the radius cannot be varied. The notch radius has a
significant effect on the ability of a sample to absorb impact. Most polymers, especially
polycarbonate and nylon have critical notch radii below which their impact strength falls off
dramatically. In a fixed radius test, the data can give a false impression about the relative impact
resistance of different polymers.

In addition, the creation of the notch in the sample has been a problem. Notch consistency has been
difficult so comparison between testing labs is difficult. Notching blades can overheat polymers and
degrade the material around the notch thus resulting in inaccurate test results. Industry round robin
studies have shown that test results among participants were impossible to correlate because of the
tremendous variations in notches.

A Charpy pendulum impact test is a variation of Izod. In a Charpy test, a sample is laid horizontally
on two supports against an anvil. The sample is notched in the center and the notch side is positioned
away from the pendulum. When the pendulum swings through the gap in the anvil, it impacts the
center of the sample with a radiused hammer. The energy to break is measured and reported in the
same way as with an Izod test.

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5.5 Hardness Test

Rockwell Hardness Test

The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond cone or
hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material under a preliminary minor
load F0 (Fig. 1A) usually 10 kgf. When equilibrium has been reached, an indicating device, which
follows the movements of the indenter and so responds to changes in depth of penetration of the
indenter is set to a datum position. While the preliminary minor load is still applied an additional
major load is applied with resulting increase in penetration (Fig. 1B). When equilibrium has again
been reach, the additional major load is removed but the preliminary minor load is still maintained.
Removal of the additional major load allows a partial recovery, so reducing the depth of penetration
(Fig. 1C). The permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from the application and
removal of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number.

HR = E - e

F0 = preliminary minor load in kgf

F1 = additional major load in kgf
F = total load in kgf
e = permanent increase in depth of penetration due to major load F1 measured in units of 0.002 mm
E = a constant depending on form of indenter: 100 units for diamond indenter, 130 units for steel
ball indenter
HR = Rockwell hardness number
D = diameter of steel ball

Rockwell Principle

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 Rockwell Hardness Scales
Minor Load Major Load Total Load
Value of
Scale Indenter F0 F1 F
E
kgf kgf kgf
A Diamond cone 10 50 60 100
B 1/16" steel ball 10 90 100 130
C Diamond cone 10 140 150 100
D Diamond cone 10 90 100 100
E 1/8" steel ball 10 90 100 130
F 1/16" steel ball 10 50 60 130
G 1/16" steel ball 10 140 150 130
H 1/8" steel ball 10 50 60 130
K 1/8" steel ball 10 140 150 130
L 1/4" steel ball 10 50 60 130
M 1/4" steel ball 10 90 100 130
P 1/4" steel ball 10 140 150 130
R 1/2" steel ball 10 50 60 130
S 1/2" steel ball 10 90 100 130
V 1/2" steel ball 10 140 150 130

Typical Application of Rockwell Hardness Scales

The Brinell Hardness Test

The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter
hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer materials the load can be
reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation. The full load is normally applied for 10
to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals. The
diameter of the indentation left in the test material is measured with a low powered microscope. The
Brinell harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the
indentation.

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The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right angles and the use of a Brinell
hardness number table can simplify the determination of the Brinell hardness. A well structured
Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and looks like this, "75 HB 10/500/30" which
means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a 10mm diameter hardened steel with a 500
kilogram load applied for a period of 30 seconds. On tests of extremely hard metals a tungsten
carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. Compared to the other hardness test methods, the Brinell
ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the test averages the hardness over a wider amount
of material, which will more accurately account for multiple grain structures and any irregularities in
the uniformity of the material. This method is the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a
material, particularly those materials with heterogeneous structures.

Vickers Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond indenter, in
the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite faces
subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The two
diagonals of the indentation left in the surface of the material after removal of the load are measured
using a microscope and their average calculated. The area of the sloping surface of the indentation is
calculated. The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by dividing the kgf load by the square mm
area of indentation.

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F= Load in kgf
d = Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm

HV = Vickers hardness

When the mean diagonal of the indentation has been determined the Vickers hardness may be
calculated from the formula, but is more convenient to use conversion tables. The Vickers hardness
should be reported like 800 HV/10, which means a Vickers hardness of 800, was obtained using a
10 kgf force. Several different loading settings give practically identical hardness numbers on
uniform material, which is much better than the arbitrary changing of scale with the other hardness
testing methods. The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that extremely accurate readings
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can be taken, and just one type of indenter is used for all types of metals and surface treatments.
Although thoroughly adaptable and very precise for testing the softest and hardest of materials,
under varying loads, the Vickers machine is a floor standing unit that is more expensive than the
Brinell or Rockwell machines.

There is now a trend towards reporting Vickers hardness in SI units (MPa or GPa) particularly in
academic papers. Unfortunately, this can cause confusion. Vickers hardness (e.g. HV/30) value
should normally be expressed as a number only (without the units kgf/mm 2). Rigorous application of
SI is a problem. Most Vickers hardness testing machines use forces of 1, 2, 5, 10, 30, 50 and 100 kgf
and tables for calculating HV. SI would involve reporting force in newtons (compare 700 HV/30 to
HV/294 N = 6.87 GPa) which is practically meaningless and messy to engineers and technicians. To
convert a Vickers hardness number the force applied needs converting from kgf to newtons and the
area needs converting form mm2 to m2 to give results in pascals using the formula above.

Microhardness Test

The term microhardness test usually refers to static indentations made with loads not exceeding
1 kgf. The indenter is either the Vickers diamond pyramid or the Knoop elongated diamond
pyramid. The procedure for testing is very similar to that of the standard Vickers hardness test,
except that it is done on a microscopic scale with higher precision instruments. The surface being
tested generally requires a metallographic finish; the smaller the load used, the higher the surface
finish required. Precision microscopes are used to measure the indentations; these usually have a
magnification of around X500 and measure to an accuracy of +0.5 micrometres. Also with the same
observer differences of +0.2 micrometres can usually be resolved. It should, however, be added that
considerable care and experience are necessary to obtain this accuracy.

Knoop Hardness Indenter Indentation

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The Knoop hardness number KHN is the ratio of the load applied to the indenter, P (kgf) to the
unrecovered projected area A (mm2)
KHN = F/A = P/CL2

Where:
F = applied load in kgf
A = the unrecovered projected area of the indentation in mm2
L = measured length of long diagonal of indentation in mm
C = 0.07028 = Constant of indenter relating projected area of the indentation to the square of
the length of the long diagonal.

The Knoop indenter is a diamond ground to pyramidal form that produces a diamond shaped
indentation having approximate ratio between long and short diagonals of 7:1. The depth of
indentation is about 1/30 of its length. When measuring the Knoop hardness, only the longest
diagonal of the indentation is measured and this is used in the above formula with the load
used to calculate KHN. Tables of these values are usually a more convenient way to look-up
KHN values from the measurements.

Vickers Pyramid Diamond Indenter Indentation

The Vickers Diamond Pyramid harness number is the applied load (kgf) divided by the surface area
of the indentation (mm2)

The Scleroscope Hardness Test

The Scleroscope test consists of dropping a diamond tipped hammer, which falls inside a glass tube
under the force of its own weight from a fixed height, onto the test specimen. The height of the
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rebound travel of the hammer is measured on a graduated scale. The scale of the rebound is
arbitrarily chosen and consists on Shore units, divided into 100 parts, which represent the average
rebound from pure hardened high-carbon steel. The scale is continued higher than 100 to include
metals having greater hardness.

In normal use the shore scleroscope test does not mark the material under test. The Shore
Scleroscope measures hardness in terms of the elasticity of the material and the hardness number
depends on the height to which the hammer rebounds, the harder the material, the higher the
rebound. Advantages of this method are portability and non-marking of the test surface.

The Durometer

The Durometer is a popular instrument for measuring the indentation hardness of rubber and rubber-
like materials. The most popular testers are the Model A used for measuring softer materials and the
Model D for harder materials.

The operation of the tester is quite simple. The material is subjected to a definite pressure applied by
a calibrated spring to an indenter that is either a cone or sphere and an indicating device measures
the depth of indentation.

Mohs Hardness Scale

The Mohs hardness scale for minerals has been used since 1822. It simply consists of 10 minerals
arranged in order from 1 to 10. Diamond is rated as the hardest and is indexed as 10; talc as the
softest with index number 1. Each mineral in the scale will scratch all those below it as follows:

Diamond 10
Corundum 9
Topaz 8
Quartz 7
Orthoclase (Feldspar) 6
Apatite 5
Fluorite 4
Calcite 3
Gypsum 2
Talc 1

The steps are not of equal value and the difference in hardness between 9 and 10 is much greater
than between 1 and 2. The hardness is determined by finding which of the standard minerals the test
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material will scratch or not scratch; the hardness will lie between two points on the scale - the first
point being the mineral which is scratched and the next point being the mineral which is not
scratched. Some examples of the hardness of common metals in the Mohs scale are copper between
2 and 3 and tool steel between 7 and 8. This is a simple test, but is not exactly quantitative and the
standards are purely arbitrary numbers.

The materials engineer and metallurgist find little use for the Mohs scale, but it is possible to sub-
divide the scale and some derived methods are still commonly used today. The file test is useful as a
rapid and portable qualitative test for hardened steels, where convention hardness testers are not
available or practical. Files can be tempered back to give a range of known hardness and then used
in a similar fashion to the Mohs method to evaluate hardness.

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