Unit – II

HEAT TREATMENT
Steel is usually defined as an alloy of iron and carbon with the carbon content between a few
hundreds of a percent up to about 2 wt%. Other alloying elements can amount in total to about
5 wt% in low-alloy steels and higher in more highly alloyed steels such as tool steels, stainless steels
(>10.5%) and heat resisting CrNi steels (>18%). Steels can exhibit a wide variety of properties
depending on composition as well as the phases and micro-constituents present, which in turn
depend on the heat treatment.

2.1 The Fe-C Phase Diagram

The basis for the understanding of the heat treatment of steels is the Fe-C phase diagram (Fig 2.1).
Figure 2.1 actually shows two diagrams; the stable iron-graphite diagram (dashed lines) and the
metastable Fe-Fe3C diagram. The stable condition usually takes a very long time to develop,
especially in the low-temperature and low-carbon range, and therefore the metastable diagram is of
more interest. The Fe-C diagram shows which phases are to be expected at equilibrium (or
metastable equilibrium) for different combinations of carbon concentration and temperature.

We distinguish at the low-carbon end ferrite (α-iron),which can at most dissolve 0.028% C, at 727°C
(1341°F) and austenite -iron, which can dissolve 2.11 wt% C at 1148°C (2098°F). At the carbon-rich
side we find cementite (Fe3C). Of less interest, except for highly alloyed steels, is the δ-ferrite
existing at the highest temperatures.

Between the single-phase fields are found regions with mixtures of two phases, such as ferrite +
cementite, austenite + cementite, and ferrite + austenite. At the highest temperatures, the liquid
phase field can be found and below this are the two phase fields liquid + austenite, liquid +
cementite, and liquid + δ-ferrite.

In heat treating of steels, the liquid phase is always avoided. Some important boundaries at single-
phase fields have been given special names:

 A1, the so-called eutectoid temperature, which is the minimum temperature for austenite
 A3, the lower-temperature boundary of the austenite region at low carbon contents, that is,
the γ/γ + α boundary
 Acm, the counterpart boundary for high carbon contents, that is, the γ/γ + Fe 3C boundary

The carbon content at which the minimum austenite temperature is attained is called the eutectoid
carbon content (0.77 wt% C). The ferrite-cementite phase mixture of this composition formed during
cooling has a characteristic appearance and is called pearlite and can be treated as a micro structural
entity or micro constituent. It is an aggregate of alternating ferrite and cementite lamellae that
degenerates into cementite particles dispersed with a ferrite matrix after extended holding close to
A1.

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 Fig. 2.1 The Fe-Fe3C diagram.

The Fe-C diagram in Fig 2.1 is of experimental origin. The knowledge of the thermodynamic
principles and modern thermodynamic data now permits very accurate calculations of this diagram.
This is particularly useful when phase boundaries must be extrapolated and at low temperatures
where the experimental equilibrium are extremely slow to develop.

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If alloying elements are added to the iron-carbon alloy (steel), the position of the A1, A3, and Acm
boundaries and the eutectoid composition are changed. It suffices here to mention that

1. all important alloying elements decrease the eutectoid carbon content,

2. the austenite-stabilizing elements manganese and nickel decrease A, and
3. the ferrite-stabilizing elements chromium, silicon, molybdenum, and tungsten increase A1.

2.2 Transformation Diagrams

The kinetic aspects of phase transformations are as important as the equilibrium diagrams for the
heat treatment of steels. The metastable phase martensite and the morphologically metastable micro
constituent bainite, which are of extreme importance to the properties of steels, can generally form
with comparatively rapid cooling to ambient temperature. That is when the diffusion of carbon and
alloying elements is suppressed or limited to a very short range.

Bainite is a eutectoid decomposition that is a mixture of ferrite and cementite. Martensite, the
hardest constituent, forms during severe quenches from supersaturated austenite by a shear
transformation. Its hardness increases monotonically with carbon content up to about 0.7 wt%. If
these unstable metastable products are subsequently heated to a moderately elevated temperature,
they decompose to more stable distributions of ferrite and carbide. The reheating process is
sometimes known as tempering or annealing.

The transformation of an ambient temperature structure like ferrite-pearlite or tempered martensite to

the elevated-temperature structure of austenite or austenite-carbide is also of importance in the heat
treatment of steel.

One can conveniently describe what is happening during transformation with transformation
diagrams. Four different types of such diagrams can be distinguished. These include:

 Isothermal transformation diagrams describing the formation of austenite, which will be

referred to as IT diagrams
 Isothermal transformation (IT) diagrams, also referred to as time-temperature-transformation
(TTT) diagrams, describing the decomposition of austenite
 Continuous heating transformation (CRT) diagrams
 Continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagrams

Isothermal Transformation Diagrams

This type of diagram shows what happens when a steel is held at a constant temperature for a
prolonged period. The development of the microstructure with time can be followed by holding
small specimens in a lead or salt bath and quenching them one at a time after increasing holding
times and measuring the amount of phases formed in the microstructure with the aid of a
microscope.

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ITh Diagrams (Formation of Austenite). During the formation of austenite from an original
microstructure of ferrite and pearlite or tempered martensite, the volume decreases with the
formation of the dense austenite phase. From the elongation curves, the start and finish times for
austenite formation, usually defined as 1% and 99% transformation, respectively, can be derived.

IT Diagrams (Decomposition of Austenite). The procedure starts at a high temperature, normally in

the austenitic range after holding there long enough to obtain homogeneous austenite without
undissolved carbides, followed by rapid cooling to the desired hold temperature. The cooling was
started from 850°C (1560°F). The A1 and A3 temperatures are indicated as well as the hardness.
Above A3 no transformation can occur. Between A1 and A3 only ferrite can form from austenite.

CRT Diagrams
In practical heat treatment situations, a constant temperature is not required, but rather a continuous
changing temperature during either cooling or heating. Therefore, more directly applicable
information is obtained if the diagram is constructed from dilatometric data using a continuously
increasing or decreasing temperature.

Like the ITh diagrams, the CRT diagrams are useful in predicting the effect of short-time
austenitization that occurs in induction and laser hardening. One typical question is how high the
maximum surface temperature should be in order to achieve complete austenitization for a given
heating rate. To high a temperature may cause unwanted austenite grain growth, which produces a
more-brittle martensitic microstructure.

2.3 CCT Diagrams

As for heating diagrams, it is important to clearly state what type of cooling curve the transformation
diagram was derived from.

Use of a constant cooling rate is very common in experimental practice. However, this regime rarely
occurs in a practical situation. One can also find curves for so-called natural cooling rates according
to Newton’s law of cooling. These curves simulate the behavior in the interior of a large part such as
the cooling rate of a Jominy bar at some distance from the quenched end.

Close to the surface the characteristics of the cooling rare can be very complex. Each CCT diagram
contains a family of curves representing the cooling rates at different depths of a cylinder with a 300
mm (12 in.) diameter. The slowest cooling rate represents the center of the cylinder. The more
severe the cooling medium, the longer the times to which the C-shaped curves are shifted. The M,
temperature is unaffected.

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 Fig.2.2 CCT (a) and TTT (b) diagrams.

It should be noted, however, that transformation diagrams can not be used to predict the response to
thermal histories that are very much different from the ones used to construct the diagrams. For
instance, first cooling rapidly to slightly above Ms and then reheating to a higher temperature will
give more rapid transformation than shown in the IT diagram because nucleation is greatly
accelerated during the introductory quench. It should also be remembered that the transformation
diagrams are sensitive to the exact alloying content within me allowable composition range.

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Annealing

The purpose of annealing may involve one or more of the following aims:

1. To soften the steel and to improve machinability.

2. To relieve internal stresses induced by some previous treatment (rolling, forging, uneven
cooling).
3. To remove coarseness of grain.

The treatment is applied to forgings, cold-worked sheets and wire, and castings. The operation
consists of:

a. Heating the steel to a certain temperature,

b. "Soaking" at this temperature for a time sufficient to allow the necessary changes to occur,
c. Cooling at a predetermined rate.

Sub-critical Anneal

It is not always necessary to heat the steel into the critical range. Mild steel products which have to
be repeatedly cold worked in the processes of manufacture are softened by annealing at 500° to
650°C for several hours. This is known as "process" or "close" annealing, and is commonly
employed for wire and sheets. The recrystallisation temperature of pure iron is in the region of
500°C consequently the higher temperature of 650°C brings about rapid recrystallisation of the
distorted ferrite Since mild steel contains only a small volume of strained pearlite a high degree of
softening is induced. As shown, Fig. 1b illustrates the structure formed consisting of the polyhedral
ferrite with elongated pearlite (see also Fig. 2.3).

Prolonged annealing induces greater ductility at the expense of strength, owing to the tendency of
the cementite in the strained pearlite to "ball-up" or spheroidise, as illustrated in Fig. 2.3. This is
known as "divorced pearlite". The ferrite grains also become larger, particularly if the metal has been
cold worked a critical amount. A serious embrittlement sometimes arises after prolonged treatment
owing to the formation of cementitic films at the ferrite boundaries. With severe forming operations,
cracks are liable to start at these cementite membranes.

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 Figure 2.3 Effect of annealing cold-worked mild steel

Figure 2.4 Effect of annealing at 650°C on worked steel. Ferrite recrystallised. Pearlite remains
elongated (x600)

The modern tendency is to use batch or continuous annealing furnaces with an inert purging gas.
Batch annealing usually consists of 24-30 hrs 670°C, soak 12 hrs, slow cool 4-5 days. Open coil
annealing consists in recoiling loosely with controlled space between wraps and it reduces stickers
and discoloration. Continuous annealing is used for thin strip (85% Red) running at about
400 m/min. The cycle is approximately up to 660°C 20 sec, soak and cool 30-40 sec. There is little
chance for grain growth and it produces harder and stiffer strip; useful for cans and panelling.

"Double reduced" steel is formed by heavy reduction (~50%) after annealing but it suffers from
directionality. This can be eliminated by heating between 700-920°C and rapidly quenching.

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2.4 Full Anneal and Normalizing Treatments

For steels with less than 0,9% carbon both treatments consist in heating to about 25-50°C above the
upper critical point indicated by the Fe-Fe3C equilibrium diagram (Fig. 2.1). For higher carbon
steels the temperature is 50°C above the lower critical point.

Figure 2.5 Heat-treatment ranges of steels

Average annealing and hardening temperatures are:

Carbon, % 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 to 1.3

[Link]. °C 910 860 830 810 770 760

These temperatures allow for the effects of slight variations in the impurities present and also the
thermal lag associated with the critical changes. After soaking at the temperature for a time
dependent on the thickness of the article, the steel is very slowly cooled. This treatment is known as
full annealing, and is used for removing strains from forgings and castings, improving machinability
and also when softening and refinement of structure are both required.

Normalizing differs from the full annealing in that the metal is allowed to cool in still air. The
structure and properties produced, however, varying with the thickness of metal treated. The tensile
strength, yield point, reduction of area and impact value are higher than the figures obtained by
annealing.

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Changes on Annealing

Consider the heating of a 0,3% carbon steel. At the lower critical point (Ac1) each "grain" of pearlite
changes to several minute austenite crystals and as the temperature is raised the excess ferrite is
dissolved, finally disappearing at the upper critical point (Ac3), still with the production of fine
austenite crystals. Time is necessary for the carbon to become uniformly distributed in this austenite.
The properties obtained subsequently depend on the coarseness of the pearlite and ferrite and their
relative distribution. These depend on:

a) the size of the austenite grains; the smaller their size the better the distribution of the ferrite and
pearlite.
b) the rate of cooling through the critical range, which affects both the ferrite and the pearlite.

As the temperature is raised above Ac3 the crystals increase in size. On a certain temperature the
growth, which is rapid at first, diminishes. Treatment just above the upper critical point should be
aimed at, since the austenite crystals are then small.

By cooling slowly through the critical range, ferrite commences to deposit on a few nuclei at the
austenite boundaries. Large rounded ferrite crystals are formed, evenly distributed among the
relatively coarse pearlite. With a higher rate of cooling, many ferrite crystals are formed at the
austenite boundaries and a network structure of small ferrite crystals is produced with fine pearlite in
the centre.

Overheated, Burnt and Under annealed Structures

When the steel is heated well above the upper critical temperature large austenite crystals form. Slow
cooling gives rise to the Widmanstätten type of structure, with its characteristic lack of both ductility
and resistance to shock. This is known as an overheated structure, and it can be refined by reheating
the steel to just above the upper critical point. Surface decarburisation usually occurs during the
overheating.

During the Second World War, aircraft engine makers were troubled with overheating (above
1250°C) in drop-stampings made from alloy steels. In the hardened and tempered condition the
fractured surface shows dull facets. The minimum overheating temperature depends on the "purity"
of the steel and is substantially lower in general for electric steel than for open-hearth steel. The
overheated structure in these alloy steels occurs when they are cooled at an intermediate rate from
the high temperature. At faster or slower rates the overheated structure may be eliminated. This,
together with the fact that the overheating temperature is significantly raised in the presence of high
contents of MnS and inclusions, suggests that this overheating is connected in some way with a
diffusion and precipitation process, involving MnS. This type of overheating can occur in an
atmosphere free from oxygen, thus emphasizing the difference between overheating and burning.

As the steel approaches the solids temperature, incipient fusion and oxidation take place at the grain
boundaries. Such steel is said to be burnt and it is characterized by the presence of brittle iron oxide
films, which render the steel unfit for service, except as scrap for remelting.

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Hardening: The ability to be hardened varies with the carbon and alloy content of steel. The higher
the carbon content the harder the steel can become. Low carbon steel has very low hardenability and
wrought iron which has no carbon is unhardenable.

To harden steel it is heated above the "transformation point", a low red or just above where the steel
becomes non-magnetic. Then it is quenched in brine, water, oil or even air. Afterwards it is tempered
by reheating. This reduces the brittleness of the steel a lot and the hardness just a little. Temper
temperatures range from as low as 350°F to as high as 1400°F depending on the steel.

The quenchant depends on the type of steel. In general quenching in a more sever quenchant than
necessary can cause cracks in the steel. Overheating prior to the quench can do the same.

In general hard parts are always more brittle than soft parts. Using parts that are too hard can be
dangerous. On machines this can mean parts that may explode or shatter.

I left a bunch of variables open above. This is the nature of the game. The starting place is to know
what kind of steel you are working with. Then go to a reference like MACHINERY'S HANDBOOK
and look up the correct heat treating parameters. IF you don't know what kind of steel you are using
then you have to become your own metallurgist and do some detective work. This requires lots of
trial and error and attention to detail, plus a lot of knowledge.

There is no simple formula or magic bullet. Start with a book like Jack Andrew's NEW Edge of the
Anvil and a copy of MACHINERY'S HANDBOOK. If you start working with a variety of steels you
will also need the ASM Metal Reference Book as it has more complete listings of numerous alloys.

- guru - Friday, 06/16/00 20:21:32 GMT

2.5 Hardening /annealing silver

I don't know much about sterling silver, but I looked it up in ASM Metals Handbook vol 1 8th ed.
Sterling silver is age hardening, but the solution temperature(1300-1350°F) is close to the liquidus
temperature (1435°F). The precipitation of the copper rich phase is done by aging at 535°F for 2 hrs
or 575°F for 1 hr. Normal annealing as done by jewelers --- heat to very dull red (about 1200°F) in a
darkened area then quench in pickling solution.

While working silver I bring the piece to a dull orange (1100°F) and quench in water making the
silver malleable until my pounding/shaping work hardens the material. You can hear the difference
in sound as the piece becomes work hardened and needs to be heated again. To harden an item after
all work is done I place the piece in a kiln and bring it up to Temp app 650°F and let sit for 6-7 hrs
and cool down. The item now is hardened and would need to be brought back up to the 1100°F and
quick quenched to be worked on again.

The quenchant may be brine, water, oil or air depending on the type of steel. Low carbon steel will
harden slightly but not to the degree of spring or tool steels. The parameters of the heat treating
sequence are determined by the type of steel. Once hardened, the part must be tempered. Tempering
is the reheating of the part to a temperature well below the hardening temperature to reduce the
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hardness and increase the toughness. This may range from 350°F to as high as 1350°F depending on
the steel and the hardness desired. On very hard critical parts double tempering (doing more than
once) is recommended. Tempering helps reduce hardening stresses and double tempering is cheap
insurance.

Quenching Oil: Mineral oil is the least toxic. For something the size of a power hammer die you will
want several gallons. Oil is lower density than water, has lower thermal conductivity and flashes
rather than evaporate if over heated. Therefore it takes quite a bit more oil to quench a part than
water.

If you quench with too little water it just boils off. If you have too little oil it goes up in explosive
smoke that is often ignited by the hot steel. If you must use automotive oils use ATF. It has less
(possibly toxic) additives than regular oils. - guru - Monday, 06/19/00 04:48:38 GMT

The splendid smith Burnham-Kidwell pointed out that when he changed from automotive drain oil
(the old standard low-rent quenchant) to used deep-fry oil his shop went from smelling like a lousy
auto repair shop to a cheap deli...a considerable improvement. Deep fry oil (often peanut oil) is
selected for it's high flash point, is pretty non-toxic as oil quenchants go, and is generally free. It
seems to work just fine . . . . . er, avoid the fried fish places.

Tempering unknown steel (blades): When you use scrap steel you have to become your own
metallurgist. Take a scrap piece forge a section similar to your blade and experiment. Use a file or
HSS cutter bit to judge the hardness. Try sharpening a short piece and see how it works. You have a
choice of trial and error or purchasing a known steel.

The transformation point of steel is just a tad higher than the point at which it becomes non-magnetic
BUT is equal or lower on high carbon steels. But by the time you've tested (in the forge) the part will
have reached the transformation point. Many alloy steels are oil quench and I start there. If it doesn't
harden sufficiently then try water (it should be warm or slightly above room temperature). You
cannot judge temper temperatures of alloy steels by temper colors.

The best way to get a uniform temper is to heat a larger block or slab of steel to a known temperature
and then set your blade on that and let it soak up the heat. It should remain at tempering temperature
for as long as you can maintain it or up to an hour. If your tempering block is fairly large just let it
and the blade both cool together. Tempering temperature varies with the variety of steel. It can be as
low as 350°F and as high as 1300°F. Most steels are tempered in the 500 to 600°F range. You really
need to find a copy of MACHINERY'S HANDBOOK or one of the blacksmithing references such
as Edge of the Anvil that has tempering data. If you are going to stay in the knife business you should
purchase one of the (relatively expensive) references such as the ASM Metals Reference Book. There
are just too many steels and too many combinations of treatments to cover here.

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2.6 Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT ) Diagram

T (Time) T(Temperature) T(Transformation) diagram is a plot of temperature versus the logarithm

of time for a steel alloy of definite composition. It is used to determine when transformations begin
and end for an isothermal (constant temperature) heat treatment of a previously austenitized alloy.
When austenite is cooled slowly to a temperature below LCT (Lower Critical Temperature), the
structure that is formed is Pearlite. As the cooling rate increases, the pearlite transformation
temperature gets lower. The microstructure of the material is significantly altered as the cooling rate
increases. By heating and cooling a series of samples, the history of the austenite transformation may
be recorded. TTT diagram indicates when a specific transformation starts and ends and it also shows
what percentage of transformation of austenite at a particular temperature is achieved.

Cooling rates in the order of increasing severity are achieved by quenching from elevated
temperatures as follows: furnace cooling, air cooling, oil quenching, liquid salts, water quenching,
and brine. If these cooling curves are superimposed on the TTT diagram, the end product structure
and the time required to complete the transformation may be found.

In Figure 1 the area on the left of the transformation curve represents the austenite region. Austenite
is stable at temperatures above LCT but unstable below LCT. Left curve indicates the start of a
transformation and right curve represents the finish of a transformation. The area between the two
curves indicates the transformation of austenite to different types of crystal structures. (Austenite to
pearlite, austenite to martensite, austenite to bainite transformation.)

Figure 2.6 TTT Diagram

Figure 2 represents the upper half of the TTT diagram. As indicated in Figure 2, when austenite is
cooled to temperatures below LCT, it transforms to other crystal structures due to its unstable nature.
A specific cooling rate may be chosen so that the transformation of austenite can be 50 %, 100 %
etc. If the cooling rate is very slow such as annealing process, the cooling curve passes through the

33
entire transformation area and the end product of this the cooling process becomes 100% Pearlite. In
other words, when slow cooling is applied, all the Austenite will transform to Pearlite. If the cooling
curve passes through the middle of the transformation area, the end product is 50 % Austenite and 50
% Pearlite, which means that at certain cooling rates we can retain part of the Austenite, without
transforming it into Pearlite.

Figure 2.7 Upper half of TTT Diagram(Austenite-Pearlite Transformation Area)

Figure 2.7 indicates the types of transformation that can be found at higher cooling rates. If a cooling
rate is very high, the cooling curve will remain on the left hand side of the Transformation Start
curve. In this case all Austenite will transform to Martensite. If there is no interruption in cooling the
end product will be martensite.

Figure 2.8 Lower half of TTT Diagram (Austenite-Martensite and Bainite Transformation Areas)

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In Figure 2.9 the cooling rates A and B indicate two rapid cooling processes. In this case curve A
will cause a higher distortion and a higher internal stresses than the cooling rate B. The end product
of both cooling rates will be martensite. Cooling rate B is also known as the Critical Cooling Rate,
which is represented by a cooling curve that is tangent to the nose of the TTT diagram. Critical
Cooling Rate is defined as the lowest cooling rate which produces 100% Martensite while
minimizing the internal stresses and distortions.

Figure 2.9. Rapid Quench

In Figure 2.10, a rapid quenching process is interrupted (horizontal line represents the interruption)
by immersing the material in a molten salt bath and soaking at a constant temperature followed by
another cooling process that passes through Bainite region of TTT diagram. The end product is
Bainite, which is not as hard as Martensite. As a result of cooling rate D; more dimensional stability,
less distortion and less internal stresses are created.

Figure 2.10 Interrupted Quench

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In Figure 2.11 cooling curve C represents a slow cooling process, such as furnace cooling. An
example for this type of cooling is annealing process where all the Austenite is allowed to transform
to Pearlite as a result of slow cooling.

Figure 2.11 Slow cooling process (Annealing)

Sometimes the cooling curve may pass through the middle of the Austenite-Pearlite transformation
zone. In Figure 2.12, cooling curve E indicates a cooling rate which is not high enough to produce
100% martensite. This can be observed easily by looking at the TTT diagram. Since the cooling
curve E is not tangent to the nose of the transformation diagram, austenite is transformed to 50%
Pearlite (curve E is tangent to 50% curve). Since curve E leaves the transformation diagram at the
Martensite zone, the remaining 50 % of the Austenite will be transformed to Martensite.

Figure 2.12. Cooling rate that permits both pearlite and martensite formation.

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Figure 2.13 TTT Diagram and microstructures obtained by different types of cooling rates

Figure 2.14 Austenite Figure 2.15 Pearlite

Figure 2.16 Martensite Figure 2.17 Bainite

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2.7 Hardening and Tempering
Steels can be heat treated to high hardness and strength levels. The reasons for doing this are
obvious. Structural components subjected to high operating stress need the high strength of a
hardened structure. Similarly, tools such as dies, knives, cutting devices, and forming devices need a
hardened structure to resist wear and deformation.

As-quenched hardened steels are so brittle that even slight impacts may cause fracture. Tempering is
a heat treatment that reduces the brittleness of a steel without significantly lowering its hardness and
strength. All hardened steels must be tempered before use.

QUENCH AND TEMPERING PROCESSES:

(1) Conventional Heat, Quench and Temper process

(2) Martempering

(3) Austempering

Conventional Heat, Quench and Temper Process

In this process, Austenite is transformed to Martensite as a result of rapid quench from furnace to
room temperature. Then, martensite is heated to a temperature which gives the desired hardness. One
serious drawback is the possibility of distorting and cracking the metal as a result of severe
quenching required to form Martensite without transforming any of the austenite to pearlite. During
quenching process, the outer area is cooled quicker than the center. Thinner parts are cooled faster
than parts with greater cross-sectional areas. What this means is that transformations of the Austenite
are proceeding at different rates. As the metal cools, it also contracts and its microstructure occupies
less volume. Extreme variations in size of metal parts complicate the work of the heat treated and
should be avoided in the designing of metal parts. This means there is a limit to the overall size of
parts that can be subjected to such thermal processing. Figure 1 shows the conventional hardening,
tempering process.

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 Figure 2.18 Conventional quenching and tempering process.

Martempering (Marquenching)

To overcome the restrictions of conventional quenching and tempering, Martempering process can
be used. Martempering or marquenching permits the transformation of Austenite to Martensite to
take place at the same time throughout the structure of the metal part. This is shown in Figure 2.19.
By using interrupted quench, the cooling is stopped at a point above the martensite transformation
region to allow sufficient time for the center to cool to the same temperature as the surface. Then
cooling is continued through the martensite region, followed by the usual tempering.

39
 Figure 2.19 Martempering process.

Austempering

This is the second method that can be used to overcome the restrictions of conventional quench and
tempering. The quench is interrupted at a higher temperature than for Martempering to allow the
metal at the center of the part to reach the same temperature as the surface. By maintaining that
temperature, both the center and the surface are allowed to transform to Bainite and are then cooled
to room temperature.

Advantages of Austempering:

(1) Less distortion and cracking than martempering,

(2) No need for final tempering (less time consuming and more energy efficient)

(3) Improvement of toughness (impact resistance is higher than the conventional

quench and tempering)

(4) Improved ductility

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Limitations of Austempering

Austempering can be applied to parts where the transformation to pearlite can be avoided. This
means that the section must be cooled fast enough to avoid the formation of pearlite. Thin sections
can be cooled faster than the bulky sections. Most industrial applications of austempering have been
limited to sections less than 1/2 in. thick. The thickness can be increased by the use of alloy steels,
but then the time for completion of transformation to bainite may become excessive.

Figure 2.20 Austempering process.

In Austempering process, the end product is 100% bainite. It is accomplished by first heating the
part to the proper austenitizing temperature followed by cooling rapidly in a slat bath which is
maintained between 400 and 800 oF. The part is left in the bath until the transformation to bainite is
complete. The steel is caused to go directly from austenite to bainite.

The austemper process offers benefits over the more conventional oil quench and temper method of
heat treating springs and stampings that requires the uppermost in distortion control. The process
consists of quenching the part from the proper austentizing temperature directly into a liquid salt
bath at a temperature between 590 to 710 degrees Farenheit.

The part is held at this quench temperature for a recommended time to transform the Austenite into
Bainite. The part is then removed from the salt quench and air cooled to room temperature.

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Advantages of Austempering:
• Less Distortion
• Greater Ductility
• Parts are plater friendly due to the clean surface from the salt quench
• Uniform and consistent Hardness
• Tougher and More Wear Resistant
• Higher Impact and Fatigue Strengths
• Resistance to Hydrogen Embrittlement

You should use the Austempering process if:

• Material used: SAE 1050 to 1095, 4130, 4140
• Material thickness between 0.008 and 0.150 inches.
• Hardness requirements needed in between HRC 38-52
• Distortion prone

2.8 Hardenability and Jominy End Quench Test

The influence of alloy composition on the ability of a steel alloy to transform to martensite for a
particular quenching treatment is related to a parameter called hardenability. For every different steel
alloy there is a specific relationship between the mechanical properties and the cooling rate.
Hardenability is used to describe the ability of an alloy to be hardened by the formation of martensite
as a result of a given heat treatment. One standard procedure that is widely utilized to determine
hardenability is the Jominy end quench test. The heating and cooling treatment of the steel
specimens have a great effect on the phase of the microstructure of the steel specimen. The addition
of alloys or coarsening of the austenitic grain structure increase the hardenability of steel. Any steel
that has low critical cooling rate will harden deeper than one that has a high cooling rate of
quenching. The size of the part that is being quenched has a direct effect upon the hardenability of
the material. The objective of the experiment is to take readings in the Rockwell C scale along the
flat surface of the Jominy specimen and to plot Hardness versus distance from quenched end.

Equipment: Electric Furnace, Jominy End Quench Test Fixture, Jominy Specimens (Made as per
ASTM standard), Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine.

Procedure:
1. Preheat the furnace to 1700 oF.
2. Place the Jominy specimen in the furnace and soak for one hour.
3. Turn the water on at the Jominy sink. Adjust the free water column to about 2.5 in. Swivel the
baffle plate to block the water column so that there is no contact between water and the test
specimen when the test specimen is initially placed on the fixture.
4. Remove the Jominy specimen from the furnace and place it in the fixture as shown in Figure 2.21.
Swivel the baffle out of position so that the water impinges on the bottom of the specimen without
wetting the sides of the specimen. Leave water running for about 15 minutes.

42
 Figure 2.21. Jominy end quench fixture

5. Remove the Jominy specimen from the fixture and grind a flat on the side of the specimen.

6. Mark points on the ground surface at an interval of 1/16 in. up to 2 in. distance from the quenched
end as shown in Figure 2.22.

Figure 2.22

43
7. Take readings at an interval of 1/16 in. by measuring the Rockwell C hardness at each point
marked in the previous step.

8. Plot the data for Rockwell Hardness versus Distance from quenched end as shown in Figure 2.23.

Figure 2.23
Determining the Hardenability of a Material:

In the Jominy test the quenching medium is eliminated from consideration by standardizing the
effect of the quenching medium on a steel sample regardless of the medium. This is designated by
the ratio of the heat transfer factor F to the thermal conductivity K of the material. This ratio is called
H-factor which indicates the severity of a cooling rate.

F= Heat transfer factor

H = F/K
H= Thermal conductivity

H-Factor Quench Conditions Agitation

0.20 Poor oil quench None

0.70 Strong oil quench Violent

1.00 Poor water quench None

1.50 Very good water Strong

quench

2.00 Brine quench None

5.00 Brine quench Violent

Table 1. H-Factors
44
Table 1 shows the H-values for various quench conditions and type of agitation. For H=0.20 the least
severe cooling rate is observed. As H -factor increases the severity of the cooling rate also increases.

Figure 2.24

Figure 2.25

45
Figure 2.24 indicates the hardenability property of a certain type of steel regardless of the quenching
medium. In order to find the effect of a certain type of quenching on the hardenability of a steel,
additional graphs (Figure 2.25) that relate the size and the quenching medium must accompany the
Jominy hardenability curves (Figure 2.24). Figure 2.25 represents the case where the hardness at the
center of a bar with a specific size is to be calculated. If a specific hardness is required for the center
of a round part, first define the type of quench and the diameter of the part. Using Figure 2.25 draws
a horizontal line from the diameter axis and intersects it with the F-Factor curve. Then, draw a
vertical line from the intersection point and read the distance from the quenched end. Use the
distance in Figure 2.24 to determine the hardness at the center of the part. Example: a 1.5 in diameter
steel part is quenched in oil with no agitation. (H=0.20). If we use a 3140 steel, what would be the
hardness number at the center of the part ?

First go to Figure 2.25 and draw a horizontal line from 1.5 in. diamater and intersect it with H=0.20 .
Draw a vertical line from the intersection point and read distance from quenched end, which is
3/4 in.

Figure 2.26

3/4 in is the same as 12/16 in. Go to Figure 2.24 and locate 12/16 in. Draw a vertical line from 12/16
in distance from quenched end until it intersects the hardenability curve for 3140 Steel. Read the
hardness.

46
 Figure 2.27

Jominy Number:

The location of a certain hardness can be described by a Jominy number by J x = y, where

x = hardness number (Rockwell C scale) and y = distance from quenched end (expressed as y/16 in
). A Rockwell hardness of 35 Rc 5/16 in. from the quenched end is written as a Jominy number,
where x = 35 and y = 5:J35 = 5
A Rockwell hardness of 30 Rc 1/2 in. from the quenched end is written as a Jominy
number where x = 30 and y = 8:

J30= 8

2.9 CASE HARDENING

Introduction

Surface hardening is a process which includes a wide variety of techniques is used to

improve the wear resistance of parts without affecting the softer, tough interior of the part. This
combination of hard surface and resistance and breakage upon impact is useful in parts such as a
cam or ring gear that must have a very hard surface to resist wear, along with a tough interior to
resist the impact that occurs during operation. Further, the surface hardening of steels has an
advantage over through hardening because less expensive low-carbon and medium-carbon steels can
be surface hardened without the problems of distortion and cracking associated with the through
hardening of thick sections.

Casehardening

Casehardening produces a hard wear resistant surface or case over a strong, tough core.
Casehardening is ideal for parts which require a wear resistant surface and at the same time, must be
tough enough internally to withstand the applied loads. The steels best suited to casehardening are

47
the low carbon and low alloy steels. If high carbon steel is casehardened, the hardness penetrates the
core and causes brittleness. In casehardening, the surface of the metal is changed chemically by
introducing a high carbide or nitride content. The core is chemically unaffected.

When heat treated, the surface responds to hardening while the core toughens. The common forms of
casehardening are carburizing, cyaniding and nitriding.

The surface hardening by diffusion involves the chemical modification of a surface. The basic
process used is thermo-chemical because some heat is needed to enhance the diffusion of hardening
species into the surface and subsurface regions of part. The depth of diffusion exhibits time-
temperature dependence such that:

Case depth ≈ K √Time

where the diffusivity constant, K, depends on temperature, the chemical composition of the steel,
and the concentration gradient of a given hardening species. In terms of temperature, the diffusivity
constant increases exponentially as a function of absolute temperature. Concentration gradients
depend on the surface kinetics and reactions of a particular process.

Methods of hardening by diffusion include several variations of hardening species (such as carbon,
nitrogen, or boron) and of the process method used to handle and transport the hardening species to
the surface of the part. Process methods for exposure involve the handling of hardening species in
forms such as gas, liquid, or ions. These process variations naturally produce differences in typical
case depth and hardness (Table 1). Factors influencing the suitability of a particular diffusion
method include the type of steel (Table 3). It is also important to distinguish between total case depth
and effective case depth. The effective case depth is typically about two-thirds to three-fourths the
total case depth. The required effective depth must be specified so that the heat treatment can
process the parts for the correct time at the proper temperature.

Table 1: Typical characteristics of diffusion treatments

Process Typical Case

Process Nature of case temperature case hardness Typical base metals
(°C) depth (HRC)
Low-carbon steels,
125μm-
Carburizing Pack Diffused carbon 815-1090 50-63* low-carbon alloy
1.5mm
steels
Low-carbon steels,
75 μm-
Gas Diffused carbon 815-980 50-63* low-carbon alloy
1.5mm
steels
Diffused carbon Low-carbon steels,
50 μm-
Liquid and possibly 815-980 50-65* low-carbon alloy
1.5mm
nitrogen steels
Vacuum Diffused carbon 815-1090 75 μm- 50-63* Low-carbon steels,

48
 1.5mm low-carbon alloy
steels
Diffused nitrogen, Alloy steels,
12μm-
Nitriding Gas nitrogen 480-590 50-70 nitriding steels,
0.75mm
compounds stainless steels
Diffused nitrogen, Most ferrous
2.5μm-
Salt nitrogen 510-565 50-70 metals. Including
0.75mm
compounds cast irons
Diffused nitrogen. Alloy steels,
75μm-
Ion nitrogen 340-565 50-70 nitriding steels,
0.75mm
compounds stainless steels
Low-carbon steels,
Carbonitriding Diffused carbon 75μm- low-carbon alloy
760-870 50-65*
Gas and nitrogen 0.75mm steels, stainless
steels
Liquid Diffused carbon 2.5-
760-870 50-65* Low-carbon steels
(cyaniding) and nitrogen 125μm
Ferritic Diffused carbon 2.5-
565-675 40-60* Low-carbon steels
nitrocarburizing and nitrogen 25μm
Other
Diffused 25μm-
Aluminizing 870-980 < 20 Low-carbon steels
aluminum 1mm
(pack)
Siliconizing by
25μm-
chemical vapor Diffused silicon 925-1040 30-50 Low-carbon steels
1mm
deposition
LCS <
Chromizing by 30;
Diffused High- and low
chemical vapor 980-1090 25-50μm High-
chromium carbon steels
deposition carbon
50-60
Diffused carbon
2,5- Alloy steels, tool
Titanium Carbide and titanium, TiC 900-1010 > 70*
12.5μm steels
compound
Alloy steels, tool
Diffused boron. 12,5-
Boriding 400-1150 40- > 70 steels, Cobalt and
boron compounds 50μm
nickel alloys
 Requires quench from austenitizing temperature.

49
 Table 2. Types of steels used for various diffusion processes

Diffusion substrates
Low-carbon steels Alloy steels Tool steels Stainless steels
Carburizing Nitriding Titanium Gas nitriding
Cyaniding Ion carbide Titanium carbide
Ferritic nitriding Boriding Ion nitriding
nitrocarburizing Salt nitriding Ferritic
Carbonitriding Ion nitriding nitrocarburizing
Gas nitriding

Carburizing

Carburizing is a casehardening process in which carbon is added to the surface of low carbon steel.
Thus, carburized steel has a high carbon surface and a low carbon interior. When the carburized steel
is heat treated, the case is hardened while the core remains soft and tough.

Carburizing is the addition of carbon to the surface of low-carbon steels at temperatures generally
between 850 and 950°C (1560 and 1740°F), at which austenite, with its high solubility for carbon, is
the stable crystal structure. Hardening is accomplished when the high-carbon surface layer is
quenched to form martensite so that a high-carbon martensitic case with good wear and fatigue
resistance is superimposed on a tough, low-carbon steel core.

Case hardness of carburized steels is primarily a function of carbon content. When the carbon
content of the steel exceeds about 0.50% additional carbon has no effect on hardness but does
enhance hardenability. Carbon in excess of 0.50% may not be dissolved, which would thus require
temperatures high enough to ensure carbon-austenite solid solution.

Case depth of carburized steel is a function of carburizing time and the available carbon potential at
the surface. The variation of case depth with carburizing time is shown in Figure-2.28. When
prolonged carburizing times are used for deep case depths, a high carbon potential produces a high
surface-carbon content, which may thus result in excessive retained austenite or free carbides. These
two micro structural elements both have adverse effects on the distribution of residual stress in the
case-hardened part. Consequently, a high carbon potential may be suitable for short carburizing
times but not for prolonged carburizing.

Carburizing steels for case hardening usually have base-carbon contents of about 0.2%, with the
carbon content of the carburized layer generally being controlled at between 0.8 and 1% C.
However, surface carbon is often limited to 0.9% because too high a carbon content can result in
retained austenite and brittle martensite.

Most steels that are carburized are killed steels (deoxidized by the addition of aluminum), which
maintain fine grain sizes to temperatures of about 1040°C. Steels made to coarse grain practices can

50
be carburized if a double quench provides grain refinement. Double quenching usually consists of a
direct quench and then a re-quench from a lower temperature.

In another method of carburizing, called "gas carburizing," a material rich in carbon is introduced
into the furnace atmosphere. The carburizing atmosphere is produced by the use of various gases or
by the burning of oil, wood, or other materials. When the steel parts are heated in this atmosphere,
carbon monoxide combines with the gamma iron to produce practically the same results as those
described under the pack carburizing process.

A third method of carburizing is that of "liquid carburizing." In this method the steel is placed in a
molten salt bath that contains the chemicals required to produce a case comparable with one
resulting from pack or gas carburizing.

Alloy steels with low carbon content as well as low carbon steels may be carburized by either of the
three processes. However, some alloys, such as nickel, tend to retard the absorption of carbon. As a
result, the time required to produce a given thickness of case varies with the composition of the
metal.

Quenching:

All of the carburizing processes (pack, gas, liquid) require quenching from the carburizing
temperature or a lower temperature or reheating and quenching. Parts are then tempered to the
desired hardness.

Figure 2.28 Case depth vs. Carburizing time.

Pack Carburizing
In this process, the part that is to be carburized is packed in a steel container so that it is completely
surrounded by granules of charcoal. The charcoal is treated with an activating chemical such as
Barium Carbonate (BaBO3) that promotes the formation of Carbon Dioxide (CO2). This gas in turn
reacts with the excess carbon in the charcoal to produce carbon monoxide; CO. Carbon Monoxide
reacts with the low-carbon steel surface to form atomic carbon which diffuses into the steel. Carbon
51
Monoxide supplies the carbon gradient that is necessary for diffusion. The carburizing process does
not harden the steel. It only increases the carbon content to some predetermined depth below the
surface to a sufficient level to allow subsequent quench hardening.
Carbon Monoxide reaction: CO2 + C ---> 2 CO
Reaction of Cementite to Carbon Monoxide: 2 CO + 3 Fe --->Fe3C + CO2

Figure 2.29 Pack carburizing process

Quenching Process:
It is difficult to quench the part immediately, as the sealed pack has to be opened and the part must
be removed from the pack. One technique that is used often is to slow cool the entire pack and
subsequently harden and temper the part after it is removed from the sealed pack.

Depth of Hardening:
There is no technical limit to the depth of hardening with carburizing techniques, but it is not
common to carburize to depths in excess of 0.050 in.

Carburizing Time: 4 to 10 hours

Gas Carburizing
Can be done with any carbonaceous gas, such as methane, ethane, propane, or natural gas. Most
carburizing gases are flammable and controls are needed to keep carburizing gas at 1700 oF from
contacting air (oxygen). The advantage of this process over pack carburizing is an improved ability
to quench from the carburizing temperature. Conveyor hearth furnaces make quenching in a
controlled atmosphere possible.

In gas carburizing, the parts are surrounded by a carbon-bearing atmosphere that can be continuously
replenished so that a high carbon potential can be maintained. While the rate of carburizing is

52
substantially increased in the gaseous atmosphere, the method requires the use of a multicomponent
atmosphere whose composition must be very closely controlled to avoid deleterious side effects, for
example, surface and grain-boundary oxides. In addition, a separate piece of equipment is required
to generate the atmosphere and control its composition. Despite this increased complexity, gas
carburizing has become the most effective and widely used method for carburizing steel parts in
large quantities.

In efforts required to simplify the atmosphere, carburizing in an oxygen-free environment at very

low pressure (vacuum carburizing) has been explored and developed into a viable and important
alternative. Although the furnace enclosure in some respects becomes more complex, the atmosphere
is greatly simplified. A single-component atmosphere consisting solely of a simple gaseous
hydrocarbon, for example methane, may be used. Furthermore, because the parts are heated in an
oxygen-free environment, the carburizing temperature may be increased substantially without the
risk of surface or grain-boundary oxidation. The higher temperature permitted increases not only the
solid solubility of carbon in the austenite but also its rate of diffusion, so that the time required to
achieve the case depth desired is reduced.

Although vacuum carburizing overcomes some of the complexities of gas carburizing, it introduces a
serious new problem that must be addressed. Because vacuum carburizing is conducted at very low
pressures, and the rate of flow of the carburizing gas into the furnace is very low, the carbon
potential of the gas in deep recesses and blind holes is quickly depleted. Unless this gas is
replenished, a great nonuniformity in case depth over the surface of the part is likely to occur. If, in
an effort to overcome this problem, the gas pressure is increased significantly, another problem
arises, that of free-carbon formation, or sooting.

Liquid Carburizing

Can be performed in internally or externally heated molten salt pots. Carburizing salt contains
cyanide compounds such as sodium cyanide (NaCN). Cycle times for liquid cyaniding is much
shorter (1 to 4 hours) than gas and pack carburizing processes. Disadvantage is the disposal of salt.
(Environmental problems) and cost (safe disposal is very expensive).

Nitriding
Nitriding is unlike other casehardening processes in that, before nitriding, the part is heat treated to
produce definite physical properties. Thus, parts are hardened and tempered before being nitrided.
Most steels can be nitrided, but special alloys are required for best results. These special alloys
contain aluminum as one of the alloying elements and are called "nitralloys."
Principal reasons for nitriding are:
 To obtain high surface hardness
 To increase wear resistance and antigalling properties
 To improve fatigue life
 To improve corrosion resistance
 To obtain a surface that is resistant to the softening effect of heat at temperatures up to the
nitriding temperature.

53
In nitriding, the part is placed in a special nitriding furnace and heated to a temperature of
approximately 1,000°F. With the part at this temperature, ammonia gas is circulated within the
specially constructed furnace chamber. The high temperature cracks the ammonia gas into nitrogen
and hydrogen. The ammonia which does not break down is caught in a water trap below the regions
of the other two gases. The nitrogen reacts with the iron to form nitride. The iron nitride is dispersed
in minute particles at the surface and works inward. The depth of penetration depends on the length
of the treatment. In nitriding, soaking periods as long as 72 hours are frequently required to produce
the desired thickness of case. Nitriding can be accomplished with a minimum of distortion, because
of the low temperature at which parts are casehardened and because no quenching is required after
exposure to the ammonia gas.

In this process, nitrogen is diffused into the surface of the steel being treated. The reaction of
nitrogen with the steel causes the formation of very hard iron and alloy nitrogen compounds. The
resulting nitride case is harder than tool steels or carburized steels. The advantage of this process is
that hardness is achieved without the oil, water or air quench. As an added advantage, hardening is
accomplished in a nitrogen atmosphere that prevents scaling and discoloration. Nitriding temperature
is below the lower critical temperature of the steel and it is set between 925 oF and 1050 oF. The
nitrogen source is usually Ammonia (NH3). At the nitriding temperature the ammonia dissociates
into Nitrogen and Hydrogen.
2NH3 ---> 2N + 3H2

Figure 2.30 Nitriding process

The nitrogen diffuses into the steel and hydrogen is exhausted. A typical nitriding setup is illustrated
in Figure 2.30.

54
 Figure 2.31

The white layer shown in Figure 4 has a detrimental effect on the fatigue life of nitrided parts, and it
is normally removed from parts subjected to severe service. Two stage gas-nitriding processes can
be used to prevent the formation of white layer. White layer thickness may vary between 0.0003 and
0.002 in. which depends on nitriding time. The most commonly nitrided steels are chromium-
molybdenum alloy steels and Nitralloys. Surface hardness of 55 HRC to 70 HRC can be achieved
with case depths varying from 0.005 in to 0.020 in. Nitrided steels are very hard and grinding
operations should not be performed after nitriding. White layer is removed by lapping.

Figure 2.31 Nitriding time for various types of alloy steels

55
CARBURISING Vs. NITRIDING

Gas nitriding is emerging as the significant surface hardening process for today's and future industry,
constituting a viable alternative to the well-established carburizing process. Most gears, shafts, hubs,
pins and other parts are carburized in mass production to various case depths with accurate carbon
potential control. Yet, carburizing is handicapped by several disadvantages. Below table compares
certain important features of the two processes.

FEATURE
CARBURISING NITRIDING
COMPARED
Limited selection of steel types Wide variety of steel grades,
Material including austenitic stainless,
compatibility maraging and precipitation –
hardening range
Typical treatment
850 – 950°C 460-600°C
temperature
Accompanying heat Requires hardening and tempering No additional treatment required
treatment (optionally: sub-zero treatment)
Often requires costly grinding In most cases, does NOT require
Finish Machining
finish grinding
Due to lower heat treatment
temperature and absence of
Distortion
May be substantial transformation in bulk material,
distortion minimum to nil
In most cases requires washing to After nitriding, surface ready for
Surface cleanliness
remove quenching oil shipping
60 – 65 HRC Depending on steel grade, may
Surface hardness
reach 70 HRC
High carbon concentrations are Compound layer enhances
Corrosion resistance conductive to stress corrosion corrosion resistance (with the
cracking exception of stainless steels)

Carbonitriding:

Carbonitriding is a modified form of gas carburizing, rather than a form of nitriding. The
modification consists of introducing ammonia into the gas carburizing atmosphere to add nitrogen to
the carburized case as it is being produced. Nascent nitrogen forms at the work surface by the
dissociation of ammonia in the furnace atmosphere; the nitrogen diffuses into the steel
simultaneously with carbon. Typically, carbonitriding is carried out at a lower temperature and for a

56
shorter time than is gas carburizing, producing a shallower case than is usual in production
carburizing.

Carbonitriding is used primarily to impart a hard, wear-resistant case, generally from 0.075 to
0.75 mm (0.003 to 0.030 in.) deep. A carbonitrided case has better hardenability than a carburized
case. Consequently, by carbonitriding and quenching, a hardened case can be produced at less
expense within the case-depth range indicated, using either carbon or low-alloy steel. Full hardness
with less distortion can be achieved with oil quenching, or, in some instances, even gas quenching,
employing a protective atmosphere as the quenching medium.

Steels commonly carbonitrided include those in the AISI 1000, 1100, 1200, 1300, 1500, 4000, 4100,
4600, 5100, 6100, 8600, and 8700 series, with carbon contents up to about 0.25%. Also, many steels
in these same series with a carbon range of 0.30 to 0.50% are carbonitrided to case depths up to
about 0.3 mm (0.01 in.) when a combination of a reasonably tough, through-hardened core and a
hard, long-wearing surface is required (shafts and transmission gears are typical examples). Steels
such as 4140, 5130, 5140, 8640, and 4340 for applications like heavy-duty gearing are treated by this
method at 845°C (1550°F).

Often, carburizing and carbonitriding are used together to achieve much deeper case depths and
better engineering performance for parts than could be obtained using only the carbonitriding
process. This process is applicable particularly with steels with low case hardenability, that is, the
1000, 1100, and 1200 series steels. The process generally consists of carburizing at 900 to 955°C
(1650 to 1750°F) to give the desired total case depth (up to 2.5 mm. or 0.100 in.), followed by
carbonitriding for 2 to 6 h in the temperature range of 815 to 900°C (1500 to 1650°F) to add the
desired carbonitrided case depth. The subject parts can then be oil quenched to obtain a deeper
effective and thus harder case than would have resulted from the carburizing process alone. The
addition of the carbonitrided surface increases the case residual compressive stress level and thus
improves contact fatigue resistance as well as increasing the case strength gradient.

When the carburizing/carbonitriding processes are used together, the effective case depth (50 HRC)
to total case depth ratio may vary from about 0.35 to 0.75 depending on the case hardenability, core
hardenability, section size, and quenchant used.

The fundamental problem in controlling carbonitriding processes is that the rate of nitrogen pick-up
depends on the free ammonia content of the furnace atmosphere and not the percentage of ammonia
in the inlet gas. Unfortunately, no state-of-the-art sensor for monitoring the free ammonia content of
the furnace atmosphere has yet been developed.

Case Composition. The composition of a carbonitrided case depends on the type of steel and on the
process variables of temperature, time, and atmosphere composition. In terms of steel type, the case
depth achieved during a given carbonitriding process will be lower in steels containing higher
amounts of strong nitride formers such as aluminum or titanium.

In terms of process variables, the higher the carbonitriding temperature, the less effective is the
ammonia addition to the atmosphere as a nitrogen source, because the rate of spontaneous

57
decomposition of ammonia to molecular nitrogen and hydrogen increases as the temperature is
raised.

At a given temperature, the fraction of the ammonia addition that spontaneously decomposes is
dependent on the residence time of the atmosphere in the furnace: the higher the total flow of
atmosphere gases, the lower the fraction of the ammonia addition that decomposes to nitrogen and
hydrogen. The addition of ammonia to a carburizing atmosphere has the effect of dilution by the
following reaction:

2NH3 →N2 + 3H2

Dilution with nitrogen and hydrogen affects measurements of oxygen potential in a similar manner;
the carbon potential possible with given oxygen potential is higher in a carburizing atmosphere than
in a carbonitriding atmosphere. Water vapor content, however, is much less affected by this dilution.
Thus, the amount of dilution and its resulting effect on the atmosphere composition depends on the
processing temperature, the amount of ammonia introduced, and the ratio of the total atmosphere gas
flow rate to the volume of the furnace.

Depth of Case. Preferred case depth is governed by service application and by core hardness. Case
depths of 0.025 to 0.075 mm (0.001 to 0.003 in.) are commonly applied to thin pans that require
wear resistance under light loads. Case depths up to 0.75 mm (0.030 in.) may be applied to parts for
resisting high compressive loads. Case depths of 0.63 to 0.75 mm (0.025 to 0.030 in.) may be
applied to shafts and gears that are subjected to high tensile or compressive stresses caused by
torsion, bending, or contact loads.

Medium-carbon steels with core hardness of 40 to 45 HRC normally require less case depth than
steels with core hardness of 20 HRC or below. Low-alloy steels with medium-carbon content, such
as those used in automotive transmission gears, are often assigned minimum case depths of 0.2 mm
(0.008 in.).

Measurements of the case depths of carbonitrided parts may refer to effective case depth or total case
depth, as with reporting case depths for carburized parts. For very thin cases, usually only the total
case depth is specified. In general, it is easy to distinguish case and core microstructures in a
carbonitrided piece, particularly when the case is thin and is produced at a low carbonitriding
temperature; more difficulty is encountered in distinguishing case and core when high temperatures,
deep cases, and medium-carbon or high-carbon steels are involved. Whether or not the core has a
martensitic structure is also a contributing factor in case-depth measurements.

Hardenability of Case. One major advantage of carbonitnding is that the nitrogen absorbed during
processing lowers the critical cooling rate of the steel. That is, the hardenability of the case is
significantly greater when nitrogen is added by carbonitriding than when the same steel is only
carburized. This permits the use of steels on which uniform case hardness ordinarily could not be
obtained if they were only carburized and quenched. Where core properties are not important,
carbonitriding permits the use of low-carbon steels, which cost less and may have better
machinability or formability.

58
This process involves with the diffusion of both carbon and nitrogen into the steel surface. The
process is performed in a gas atmosphere furnace using a carburizing gas such as propane or
methane mixed with several percent (by volume) of ammonia. Methane or propane serve as the
source of carbon, the ammonia serves as the source of nitrogen. Quenching is done in a gas which is
not as severe as water quench. As a result of les severe quench, there is less distortion on the
material to be treated. A typical carbonitriding system is shown in the following slide. Case
hardnesses of HRC 60 to 65 are achieved at the surface.( Not as high as nitrided surfaces.) Case
depths of 0.003 to 0.030 in can be accomplished by carbonitriding. One of the advantages of this
process is that it can be applied to plain carbon steels which give significant case depths.
Carbonitriding gives less distortion than carburizing. Carbonitriding is performed at temperatures
above the transformation temperature of the steels (1400 oF -to 1600 oF)

Figure 2.32

Applications. Although carbonitnding is a modified carburizing process, its applications are more
restricted than those of carburizing. As has been stated previously, carbonitriding is largely limited
to case depths of about 0.75 mm (0.03 in.) or less, while no such limitation applies to carburizing.
Two reasons for this are: carbonitriding is generally done at temperatures of 870°C (1600°F) and
below, whereas, because of the time factor involved, deeper cases are produced by processing at
higher temperatures; and the nitrogen addition is less readily controlled than is the carbon addition, a
condition that can lead to an excess of nitrogen, and, consequently, to high levels of retained
austenite and case porosity when processing times are too long.

The resistance of a carbonitrided surface to softening during tempering is markedly superior to that
of a carburized surface. Other notable differences exist in terms of residual-stress pattern,
metallurgical structure, fatigue and impact strength at specific hardness levels, and effects of alloy
composition on case and core characteristics.

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For many applications, carbonitriding the less expensive steels will provide properties equivalent to
those obtained in gas carburized alloy steels.

Induction Hardening:

In this process an electric current flow is induced in the work piece to produce a heating action.
Every electrical conductor carrying a current has a magnetic field surrounding the conductor. Since
the core wire is a dead-end circuit, the induced current cannot flow anyplace, so the net effect is
heating of the wire. The induced current in the core conductor alternates at frequencies from 60
cycles per second (60 Hz) to millions of Hertz. The resistance to current flow causes very rapid
heating of the core material. Heating occurs from the outside inward. Induction hardening process
includes water quench after the heating process. The big advantage of this system is its speed and
ability to confine heating on small parts. The major disadvantage is the cost.

Figure 2.33. Induction hardening

Flame Hardening:

Flame hardening is the process of selective hardening with a combustible gas flame as the source of
heat for austenitizing. (The material should have at least 0.40 % Carbon content to allow hardening.)
Water quenching is applied as soon as the transformation temperature is reached. The heating media
can be oxygen acetylene, propane, or any other combination of fuel gases that will allow reasonable
heating rates. This procedure is applied to the gear teeth, shear blades, cams, ways on the lathes, etc.
Flame hardening temperatures are around 1500oF. Up to HRC 65 hardness can be achieved. For best
results the hardness depth is 3/16 inch.

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 Figure 2.34 Flame hardening

There are three methods of flame hardening are

(1) SPOT Flame Hardening: Flame is directed to the spot that needs to be heated and hardened.

(2) SPIN Flame Hardening: The workpiece is rotated while in contact with the flame

(3) PROGRESSIVE Flame Hardening: The torch and the quenching medium move across the
surface of the workpiece.

How to Select the Right Surface Hardening Method:

(1) Carburizing is the best method for low carbon steels.

(2) Nitriding is a lower distortion process than carburizing but it can be used for certain type of steels
such as chromium-molybdenum alloy steels or Nitralloy-type steels.

(3) Flame hardening is preferred for heavy cases or selective hardening of large machine
components.

(4) Induction hardening works best on parts small enough and suitable in shape to be compatible
with the induction coil.

(5) Electron beam and laser hardening are limited to the low alloy steels and plain carbon steels only.

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 Application Reference Chart

PROCESS APPLICATIONS

Carburizing Gears, cams, shafts, piston pins, sprockets

Carbonitriding Bolts, nuts gears
Gas Nitriding Gears, shafts, sprockets, valves, and fuel injection
FNC pump parts
Vacuum Harden Clutch plates, gears, washers
Vacuum Tool & Die
Carburize Bearing races, rings & pinions and drive train
components

Vacuum and Plasma hardening.:

A common use of a vacuum furnace is for the heat treatment of steel alloys. Many general heat
treating applications involve the hardening and tempering of a steel part to make it strong and tough
through service. Hardening involves heating the steel to a pre-determined temperature, then cooling
it rapidly.

Vacuum furnaces are ideal for brazing applications. Brazing is another heat-treating process used to
join two or more base metal components by melting a thin layer of filler metal in the space between
them.

A further application for vacuum furnaces is Vacuum Carburizing also known as Low Pressure
Carburizing or LPC. In this process, a gas (such as acetylene) is introduced as a partial pressure into
the hot zone at temperatures typically between 1600F and 1950F. The gas disassociates into its
constituent elements (in this case carbon and hydrogen). The carbon is then diffused into the surface
area of the part. This function is typically repeated, varying the duration of gas input and diffusion
time. Once the workload is properly "cased", quench is induced typically using oil or high pressure
gas (HPGQ) typically, nitrogen or for faster quench [Link] process is also known as case
hardening

Nitriding is a heat treating process that diffuses nitrogen into the surface of a metal to create a case
hardened surface. These processes are most commonly used on low-carbon, low-alloy steels,
however they are also used on medium and high-carbon steels, titanium, aluminum and
molybdenum.

Typical applications include gears, crankshafts, camshafts, cam followers, valve parts, extruder
screws, die-casting tools, forging dies, extrusion dies, firearm components, injectors and plastic-
mold tools.

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