Unit 1: Introduction

HISTORY OF DATA COMMUNICATION

The major evolutions in the network communications technology, including many different
people and a variety of unique devices:

1940: Small Step for Man, Great Leap for Communications

With morse code, the telephone, and radio signals behind him, George Stibitz took networking
technology a great leap forward when he sent computing commands over a teletype machine
from his model at Dartmouth College to his Complex Number Calculator in New York.

1943: Teletype Computation

Stibitz's successful telegraph prompted a new method of computation, which was quickly used
for loopbased teleprinters and automated telegraphs. An IBM adaptation of this technology was
able to transmit punched cards at a whopping 25 bits per second (bps).

1948: Teletype Modems to Sage

Telephone systems using early teletype communication modems were used to transmit multiple
images across the United States to Semi-automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) computers.
This increased the amount of data being transferred but also resulted in slower speeds at the
receiving end.

1958: American Telephone and Telegraph Bring the Digital Subset

Speed was boosted by over 4 times, sending a new record of 110 bits per second through
American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) computer modems, called Digital Subsets. These
Digital Subsets linked SAGE computers across the United States and Canada.

1962: AT&T Releases Bell 103 Data Phone

The first civilian commercial computer modem, the Bell 103 Data Phone, allowed digital data to
be transmitted over regular unconditional telephone lines. These modems were extremely
expensive and were not typically used for personal communications.

1962: Intergalactic Computer Network

J.C.R. Licklider leads the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) to create and link a
network of computers across the world, effectively known as the Intergalactic Computer
Network. This would allow data and programs to be shared by any of the connected computers.

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1965: Wide Area Network

The first wide-area computer network is created by Thomas Marill and Lawrence G. Roberts,
linking PCs across multiple systems. This served as the precursor to the ARPANET, a project
which Roberts would manage.

1977: The Hayes 80-130A

The first personal computer modem, the Hayes 80-130A, was designed by Dennis Hayes and
Dale Heatherington. The device allowed computer users to connect directly to their phone lines
to create a personal network, something never experienced before.

1981: The Hayes Smartmodem

An improved iteration, the Hayes Smartmodem, is released. This device offered 300 bits per
second speed in an affordable body. It also enabled users to perform new functions like
initializing, hanging up, and auto dialing. A 1200-bits-per-second version of the Hayes
Smartmodem was released soon after.

Mid 80s: Modems Hit the Fast Lane

IBM PC clones dominated the PC market, leading to a new year of internal Industry Standard
Architecture (ISA). Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) modem cards were designed for
additional PC compatibility, extending WAN reach. This marked the era of Broadband Services.

Modems that enabled network communications came in a variety of shapes and sizes, and
pushed bits per second way up, from 1200 to 4800, to 9600, 14400, 28800, and beyond.

1989: The World Wide Web

Consumer demand for more visual imagery, a better web-browsing interface, and more online
content prompted Sir Tim Berners-Lee to create an Information Management proposal. This
would eventually become the foundation for what we use today, the World Wide Web.

Mid 90s: Lower Costs and Faster Speeds

Home broadband entered the market in 1991, and people all over the world began accessing the
Internet using Berners-Lee's World Wide Web. Prices for commercial PCI modems plunged and
vendors began to ship out modems as standard components of PCs and laptops.

1996: The 56K

Brent Townshend created the technology for the first 56K modem, a model which used a bitrate
of 56.0/33.06 kilobytes per second, doubling the speed and power of previous modems. The 56K
gained immediate popularity due to its price point. Local Area Networks (LANs) started
becoming popular in commercial businesses.

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Early 2000s: Analog Out, ISDN, ADSL, and Cable In

Major companies began moving toward new approaches to gain faster modem speeds. All digital
phone lines (ISDN) surfaced as an alternative to analog. Cable TV modems gathered a great
amount of attention. Phone companies soon figured out how to deliver digital data more
economically through Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Lines (ADSL), boosting speeds over
existing telephone copper deployments.

2002: 3G Arrives

Commerical third-generation wireless connection (3G) was launched, offering application

services like wide-area wireless voice, mobile Internet (a fascinating feature), video calling, and
on-the-go TV. LANs were commonly used in businesses and in customer homes. To meet the
standards for 3G, a system was required to provide peak data rates of at least 200 kilobits per
second (kbps).

Mid 2000s: The Wireless Age Matures

Broadband Internet services and wires access networks quickly became mainstream technology
due to the convenience and ease of access. Users no longer required two phone lines to connect
to the Internet. File sizes for videos, video games, music, and pictures increased, and more
vendors released hardware models that could connect wirelessly to user devices, like early
iPhones and tablets.

2009: Enter 4G/LTE

4G and LTE represented the new generation of cellular standards, satisfying the speeds required
by heavy file sizes. New features were constantly introduced into customer premises equipment
to enable functions for Internet service providers and end users. The 4G standard set peak speeds
at 100 megabits per second for high-mobility communication and 1 gigabit per second for low
mobility.

Providing a Better Quality of Experience

During the later part of this decade, major markets across the world became saturated with
Internet enabled devices. Internet penetration rates quickly approached 100%, meaning everyone
had access to the web in various ways. Reaching this peak caused a shift in consumer attitudes.
Speed was still important, but quality of experience, including service activation speeds, was
now critical to success.

2011-2014: How Fast can we Go?

4G is ubiquitous. Fiber optic communications gained popularity. Hardware manufacturers

continued to develop new features within modems so that new services could be enjoyed by the

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end-user. 10 gigabits per second was tested while 1 gigabit lines were made available in the
United Kingdom and United States.

2015: Network Function Virtualization – The Next Evolution

Fiber becomes commonplace. Bitrate speeds are at an all-time high. Removing functionality
from physical gateways and enabling cloud-based services is the next big broadband trend.
Virtualization enables operators to manupulate modem functions through software, instead of
relying on built-on hardware. Speed of service increased steadily.

2017 and Beyond

The fulcrum pivots from human triggered communications to AI triggered communications.

Smart cities and smart homes, the Internet of Everything (IoE), mobile communications, and
evolving consumption habits increases spectrum utilization are done. Low frequency (sub 1Ghz)
for IoT and millimeter wavelenghts (60Ghz) for short distance. Ultra-low latency, high
bandwidth applications such as smart car with collision avoidance or robotic medical procedures
are in use. The fifth generation (5G) opens new opportunities for humans and machines to
communicate.

OPEN SYSTEM STANDARD

Open systems are computer systems that provide some combination of interoperability,
portability, and open software standards. It can also refer to specific installations that are
configured to allow unrestricted access by people and/or other computers. Open systems
include Windows, MacOS, Android, iOS, and Linux. Each of these operating systems provides
users with the ability to install and use different applications that are compatible with the system.

The term was popularized in the early 1980s, mainly to describe systems based on Unix,
especially in contrast to the more entrenched mainframes and minicomputers in use at that time.
Unlike older legacy systems, the newer generation of Unix systems featured standardized
programming interfaces and peripheral interconnects; third party development of hardware and
software was encouraged, a significant departure from the norm of the time, which saw
companies such as Amdahl and Hitachi going to court for the right to sell systems and
peripherals that were compatible with IBM's mainframes.

The definition of "open system" can be said to have become more formalized in the 1990s with
the emergence of independently administered software standards such as The Open
Group's Single UNIX Specification.

Although computer users today are used to a high degree of both hardware and software
interoperability, in the 20th century the open systems concept could be promoted by Unix
vendors as a significant differentiator.

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 Definition of Communication Link
In a telecommunications network, a link is a communication channel that connects two or more
devices for the purpose of data transmission. The link may be a dedicated physical link or a
virtual circuit that uses one or more physical links or shares a physical link with other
telecommunications links. A telecommunications link is generally based on one of several types
of information transmission paths such as those provided by communication satellites, terrestrial
radio communications infrastructure and computer networks to connect two or more points.

The term link is widely used in computer networking to refer to the communications facilities
that connect nodes of a network. Sometimes the communications facilities that provide the
communication channel that constitutes a link are also included in the definition of link.

Types:

Point-to-point

A point-to-point link is a dedicated link that connects exactly two communication facilities (e.g.,
two nodes of a network, an intercom station at an entryway with a single internal intercom
station, a radio path between two points, etc.).

Broadcast

Broadcast links connect two or more nodes and support broadcast transmission, where one node
can transmit so that all other nodes can receive the same transmission. Classic Ethernet is an
example.

Multipoint

Also known as a multidrop link, a multipoint link is a link that connects two or more nodes. Also
known as general topology networks, these include ATM and Frame Relay links, as well as X.25
networks when used as links for a network-layer protocol like IP.

Unlike broadcast links, there is no mechanism to efficiently send a single message to all other
nodes without copying and retransmitting the message.

Point-to-multipoint

A point-to-multipoint link (or simply a multipoint) is a specific type of multipoint link which
consists of a central connection endpoint (CE) that is connected to multiple peripheral CEs. All
of the peripheral CEs receive any transmission of data that originates from the central CE while
any transmission of data that originates from any of the peripheral CEs is only received by the
central CE.

Private and public

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Links are often referred to by terms that refer to the ownership or accessibility of the link.

A private link is a link that is either owned by a specific entity or a link that is only accessible by
a particular entity. A public link is a link that uses the public switched telephone network or
other public utility or entity to provide the link and which may also be accessible by anyone.

On the basis of Direction:

Uplink
 Pertaining to radio communication service, an uplink (UL or U/L) is the portion of a feeder
link used for the transmission of signals from an earth station to a space radio station, space
radio system or high altitude platform station.
 Pertaining to GSM and cellular networks, the radio uplink is the transmission path from
the mobile station (cell phone) to a base station (cell site).
 According to computer networks, an uplink is a connection from data communications
equipment toward the network core. This is also known as an upstream connection.

Downlink
 Pertaining to radiocommunication service, a downlink (DL or D/L) is the portion of a feeder
link used for the transmission of signals from a space radio station, space radio
system or high altitude platform station to an earth station.
 In the context of satellite communications, a downlink (DL) is the link from a satellite to
a ground station.
 Pertaining to cellular networks, the radio downlink is the transmission path from a cell site to
the cell phone.
 Pertaining to computer networks, a downlink is a connection from data communications
equipment toward data terminal equipment. This is also known as a downstream connection.

Forward link
A forward link is the link from a fixed location (e.g., a base station) to a mobile user. If the link
includes a communications relay satellite, the forward link will consist of both an uplink (base
station to satellite) and a downlink (satellite to mobile user).

Reverse link
The reverse link (sometimes called a return channel) is the link from a mobile user to a fixed
base station. If the link includes a communications relay satellite, the reverse link will consist of
both an uplink (mobile station to satellite) and a downlink (satellite to base station) which
together constitute a half hop.

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 Network Audit
Network audit involves collating data of different network parameters to analyze & secure our
network from threats. A network audit looks at all the hardware and software on a network, as
well as auditing security documentation such as user accounts and permissions.

Communication Audit
A communication audit can help you identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats
in the communication strategy

Applications of Communication Links in telephony

 International calls.
 Document transfer.
 Video and audio business meetings.
 Communication software integrated with other business tools.
 Group and team messaging.
 Contact centers.
 Interactive voice response.
 Automated attendants.

Applications of Communication Links in Computer Network

 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices.
 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP.
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet.
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages.
 IP phones.
 Video conferences.
 Parallel computing.
 Instant messaging.

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 Protocols in Telephony and Internet Communication
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP): Uses the Internet Protocol (IP) to transmit voice as
packets over an IP network. VoIP can be used on any data network that uses IP, such as the
internet, intranet, or local area networks (LANs).

Session Initiation Protocol (SIP): A communications protocol for signaling and controlling
multimedia communication sessions in applications of internet telephony for voice and video
calls, in private IP telephone systems, as well as in instant messaging over IP networks.

Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP): A network protocol that describes how to transmit
various media (audio, video) from one endpoint to another in a real-time fashion. RTP is suitable
for video-streaming applications, telephony over IP like Skype, and conference technologies.

H.323 Protocol: An ITU (International Telecommunication Union) VoIP protocol that provides
a basis for data (audio and video) communication over the internet. The protocol is employed in
real-time applications by different service providers for providing both audio and video service.

Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP): Transmits voice calls and videos between an IP
network and the traditional PSTN network. This protocol is essential to convert signals between
VoIP and traditional networks, especially the PSTN.

Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3): The most commonly used protocol for receiving email over the
internet. This standard protocol is used to receive emails from a remote server and send to a local
client.

TYPES OF CHANNELS
Each composite signal has a lowest possible (minimum) frequency and a highest possible
(maximum) frequency. From the point of view of transmission, there are two types of channels:

Low pass Channel This channel has the lowest frequency as ‗0‘ and highest frequency as some
non-zero frequency ‗f1‘. This channel can pass all the frequencies in the range 0 to f1.

Band pass channel This channel has the lowest frequency as some non-zero frequency ‗f1‘ and
highest frequency as some non-zero frequency ‗f2‘. This channel can pass all the frequencies in
the range f1 to f2.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Analog transmission
Advantages
Accuracy: Analog devices can provide a continuous range of values, which can lead to more
precise measurements and outputs. They can also better represent changes in physical
phenomena, like temperature, position, or pressure.

Cost: Analog signals are less expensive than digital signals and don't require expensive
components or high levels of processing power.

Ease of use: Analog signals are more accessible to process than digital signals.

Bandwidth: Analog signals use less bandwidth than digital signals.

Electrical tolerance: Analog communication systems are less sensitive to variations in electrical
tolerance.

Applications: Analog signals are ideal for applications where accuracy isn't critical but speed is
important, such as TV transmissions or video recording. They're also well-suited for audio and
video transmission.

Disadvantages
Noise interference: Analog signals are susceptible to noise interference from outside sources like
lightning strikes, radio waves, or electric motors. This can lead to a loss in reliability and
accuracy.

Data storage: Analog signals aren't very efficient at storing large amounts of data because each
value has to be stored separately.

Signal interpretation: It can be difficult to accurately interpret analog signals because it can be
hard to determine their maximum and minimum values without special equipment.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital transmission

Advantages
Noise immunity: Digital signals are less affected by noise, distortion, and interference than
analog signals.

Compression: Digital data can be compressed efficiently without losing much information.

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Storage: Digital information can be stored reliably in computer memory, and can be easily
copied and shared.

Transmission: Digital signals can be transmitted over long distances.

Manipulation: Digital data can be easily manipulated, edited, and transformed using algorithms.

Disadvantages
Security: Digital transmission can lead to security and data privacy issues, especially as more
devices become connected and more information is shared.

Sampling: Sampling can cause a loss of information.

Bandwidth: Digital signals may require higher bandwidth to communicate data.

Complexity: Systems that use digital signals may be more complex.

Internet connection: If you're using digital transmission for voice over internet protocol (VoIP),
you'll need a reliable internet connection to avoid choppy calls or outages.

Digitizing Speech
Digitization is the process of converting analog information into a digital format. In this format,
information is organized into discrete units of data called bits that can be separately addressed,
usually in multiple-bit groups called bytes. This is the binary data that computers and many
devices with computing capacity, such as digital cameras and digital hearing aids, can process.

Digitizing speech is the process of converting natural speech into a digital format so it can be
recorded, stored, and reproduced. This process is also known as analog-to-digital conversion or
sampling.

The steps involved in digitizing speech are:

Quantization: Changing the value from continuous to discrete

Sampling: Changing the time from continuous to discrete

Coding: Coding the sample value into 1s and 0s

When recording speech into a computer using a microphone is done, an analog-to-digital

converter transforms the analog signal into digital samples that the computer can process and
store. The original waveform is broken up into individual snapshots called samples, which are
then stored as a series of zeroes and ones. The digitization must also include quantifying the
magnitude (loudness) and time.

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