DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Definition:

Communication is the sharing of information locally or over distance. Telecommunication means

communication at a distance. Data is information in a form agreed by sender and receiver. Data communications
is the exchange of data between two devices over a transmission medium.

>electrical devices involved

Characteristics of an effective data-communication system

Delivery: Data must be delivered to the correct destination (intended device/user only).

Accuracy: Data must arrive without alteration or errors.

Timeliness: Data must be delivered within required time limits (late data may be useless). For audio/video, timely
delivery means real-time transmission (same order and minimal delay).

Jitter: Variation in packet arrival times; causes uneven audio/video quality.

Components of a data-communication system

Message: The information to be sent (text, numbers, images, audio, video).

Sender: Device that transmits the message (e.g., computer, camera, telephone).

Receiver: Device that accepts the message (e.g., computer, TV, phone).

Transmission medium: path between sender and receiver (twisted-pair, coaxial cable, fiber-optic, radio waves).

Protocol: Set of rules that govern communication; an agreement enabling devices to communicate (without it
devices may be connected but not understand each other).

>>>https : that sends hyper text from one place to other.

PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY
Definition:

Physical topology refers to the physical layout of a network, showing how devices (nodes) and cables (links) are
connected.

Types of Topology:

Mesh Topology

Every device is directly connected to every other device by a dedicated link.

Number of links: n(n−1)/2 (for duplex communication).

Advantages:

Reliable and robust (one link failure doesn’t affect others).

High privacy and security.

Easy fault detection.

Disadvantages:

Requires too many cables and I/O ports.

Very expensive and difficult to install.

Example: Telephone regional offices.

Star Topology

All devices are connected to a central hub (controller).

Devices communicate through the hub.

Advantages:

Easy to install, manage, and reconfigure.

Less cabling than mesh.

Failure of one link doesn’t affect others.

Disadvantages:

Dependent on hub — if hub fails, the whole network fails.

Needs more cable than ring or bus.

Use: Commonly used in LANs.

Bus Topology

All devices share one main cable (backbone).

Devices connect through drop lines and taps.

Advantages:

Easy and cost-effective installation.

Uses less cable than star or mesh.

Disadvantages:

Difficult to add new devices.

Fault isolation is hard.

Break in main cable stops all communication.

Use: Early LANs (e.g., Ethernet).

Ring Topology
Each device is connected to two neighboring devices forming a ring.

> it must have any token in one direction

Data travels in one direction; each device acts as a repeater.

Advantages:

Easy installation and reconfiguration.

Simple fault detection (alarm system).

Disadvantages:

Break in the ring can stop the entire network.

Unidirectional data flow (solved using dual ring).

Example: IBM Token Ring.

Hybrid / tree Topology

Combination of two or more topologies (e.g., star + bus).

Used in large networks for flexibility and scalability.

NETWORK CATEGORIES / Types of computer network

LAN (Local Area Network)

Covers a small area (office, building, campus).

Privately owned; connects devices like PCs and printers.

Common topologies: Bus, Ring, Star.

Speed: 100 to 1000 Mbps.

Wireless LANs are also used.

e.g : wifi

WAN (Wide Area Network)

Covers large geographic areas (country or world).

Used for long-distance data, audio, and video transmission.

Types:

Switched WAN – connects routers or LANs.

Point-to-Point WAN – direct connection (e.g., home PC to ISP).

Examples: X.25, Frame Relay, ATM, Wireless WAN.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

Medium-sized network covering a city or town.

Examples: DSL lines, cable TV networks used for internet.

1. PAN (Personal Area Network)

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a small network used for connecting devices around one person, such as a
mobile phone, laptop, and Bluetooth headset.
Its range is usually up to 10 meters.

Example: Connecting a mobile phone to a laptop using Bluetooth.

2. SAN (Storage Area Network)

A Storage Area Network (SAN) is a high-speed network that connects servers with storage devices like hard
drives or data centers.
It is mainly used in large organizations where huge amounts of data are stored and accessed.

Example: Connecting bank servers to a central data storage system.

Peer-to-Peer Network

In a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) network, all computers are equal and share resources directly with each other without
any central server.
Each computer acts as both a client and a server.

Example: File sharing between two computers using a LAN cable.

Client-Server Network

In a Client-Server network, one main computer (the server) provides resources or services to other computers
(called clients).
Clients send requests, and the server responds to them.

Example: A website where your computer (client) requests data from a web server.

Network Devices
1. Network Interface Card (NIC):

It provides a connection point between a computer and a network.

It allows the computer to communicate over the network.
It can be wired (LAN) or wireless (Wi-Fi card).

2. Hub:

A device that connects multiple computers in a network.

It sends data to all devices (broadcasting).
Has high chances of collision.
Works on the Physical layer (Layer 1) of OSI Model.

3. Switch:

Connects multiple devices in a LAN.

Uses a switching table (MAC address table) to send data only to the correct device.
Has low chances of collision.
Works on the Data Link layer (Layer 2).
More intelligent than a Hub.
4. Router:

A Wide Area Network (WAN) device.

Used to connect different networks.
Routes data from one network to another using IP addresses.
Works on the Network layer (Layer 3).

5. Bridge:

Connects two parts of the same network.

Helps reduce traffic by filtering data.
Works on the Data Link layer.

6. Gateway:

A translator device that connects two different types of networks.

Converts data formats or protocols so that communication is possible.

7. Brouter:

A combination of Bridge and Router.

Can work as a bridge (within network) or router (between networks).

8. Repeater:

Used to strengthen or regenerate weak signals in a network.

Extends the distance of data transmission.
Works on the Physical layer.

9. Firewall:

Used for network security.

Monitors and controls incoming and outgoing traffic.
Protects the network from unauthorized access.

10. Access Point:

Allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network.

Works as a bridge between wired and wireless connections.
A modem can also work as an access point.

2.3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

Divides network communication into seven distinct layers, from the physical connection to
the application layer, with each layer having a specific function.

1. Physical Layer

Deals with transmission of raw bits over a physical medium.

Defines mechanical & electrical characteristics of interfaces.

Responsible for movement of bits from one node to another.

Functions:

Defines physical characteristics of interfaces and medium.

Represents bits as electrical/optical signals.

Defines data rate (bits per second).

Synchronizes bits between sender and receiver.

Specifies line configuration (point-to-point / multipoint).

Defines physical topology (mesh, star, ring, bus, hybrid).

Defines transmission modes:

Simplex – one-way communication.

Half-duplex – both ways but one at a time.

Full-duplex – both ways at same time.

2. Data Link Layer

Converts physical layer into an error-free link.

Responsible for hop-to-hop delivery of frames.

Functions:

Framing: Divides data into frames.

Physical addressing: Adds sender/receiver address in frame header.

Flow control: Prevents receiver from being overloaded.

Error control: Detects & retransmits lost or damaged frames.

Access control: Determines which device uses the link at a time.

3. Network Layer

Responsible for source-to-destination delivery of packets across networks.

Functions:

Logical addressing: Assigns unique logical (IP) addresses to each device.

Routing: Selects best path for packet delivery through routers.

(Ensures end-to-end delivery even across multiple networks.)

4. Transport Layer

Ensures process-to-process delivery of complete messages.

Functions:

Service-point (port) addressing: Delivers message to correct process.

Segmentation & reassembly: Divides message into segments; reorders them correctly.

Connection control:

Connection-oriented – establishes connection before transfer (e.g. TCP).

Connectionless – sends without connection (e.g. UDP).

Flow control: End-to-end flow management.

Error control: Ensures reliable delivery (detects & retransmits lost data).

5. Session Layer

Manages and controls dialogs (sessions) between applications.

Functions:

Dialog control: Allows half-duplex or full-duplex communication.

Synchronization: Adds checkpoints for recovery in case of failure.

6. Presentation Layer

Deals with syntax and semantics of exchanged information.

Functions:

Translation: Converts data between sender’s and receiver’s formats.

Encryption/Decryption: Ensures data privacy and security.

Compression: Reduces data size for faster transmission.

7. Application Layer

Closest to the user; provides network access and services.

Functions/Services:

Allows remote login.

File transfer, access, and management (FTAM).

Mail services: Supports e-mail and message handling.

Directory services: Provides access to distributed databases and resources.

✅ Summary Table (for quick recall):

Layer Function

Application Provides user network services (e-mail, file access)

Presentation Translation, Encryption, Compression

Session Dialog control, Synchronization

Transport Process-to-process delivery, Error & Flow control

Network Routing, Logical addressing

Data Link Framing, Error & Flow control, Access control

Physical Transmission of bits, Physical connections