Chapter: 7. How do Organisms Reproduce?

 Reproduction: A process by which an organism produces new

organism of its own kind is known as Reproduction.
 Reproduction unlike other life processes, is not necessary to
maintain the life of an individual organism.
 Reproduction involves creation of a DNA copy.
 Variation formed during reproduction are the basis for evolution.
 Reproduction is linked to the stability of population of species.
 Variation is useful for the survival of species over time.

 Why do organisms of same species look similar?

- Organisms of same species look similar because their body designs

are similar.
- Reproduction as its most basic level will involve making copies of
the blueprints of body design.
- The chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain information for
inheritance of features from parents to next generation in the form
of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.
- The DNA present in the cell nucleus is the source of information
for protein synthesis. The types of protein synthesised in cell are
responsible for character that are formed.
- Organisms of same species have specific DNA and this DNA is
inherited to next generation through reproduction. According to the
information on DNA, proteins are made. So, organisms create
exact copies of themselves with some variations.

 Cell Reproduction OR Why the creation of only DNA copy is

not sufficient for cell division?
- Cell reproduction means cell division.
- A parent cell divides into 2 daughter cells.
- The creation of a DNA copy is the basic event in the process of
reproduction.
- Cells usually use chemicals to build copies of their DNA.
- This process results in the production of 2 similar copies of DNA
in a reproducing cell.
- The two copies of the DNA molecule, which are similar with each
other, come to two daughter cells.
- Therefore, DNA copying is always accompanied by the creation of
another cellular apparatus.
- Finally, the DNA copies are separated into two similar cells, each
with its own cellular apparatus.
- Finally, a cell divides to give rise to two daughter cells.
- So, only creation of a DNA copy is not sufficient for cell division.

 The importance of variation:

- The population of organism fill niches (Position) in the ecosystem,
using their ability to reproduce.
- During reproduction the consistency of DNA copying is important
for the maintenance of body design. This allows the organism to
use that particular niche. Thus, the stability of populations of
species in particular niches are maintained by the process of
reproduction.
- There are chances that positions can change due to reasons beyond
the control of organisms.
- The changes may be in form of fluctuations in temperature of the
earth, varying water level and any other ecological imbalance.
Example: A population of bacteria living in water with moderate
temperature. Because of global warming the temperature of water
may be increased, many bacteria may die, but few temperatures
resistant bacteria may survive and grow further.
- Thus, variation is useful for the survival of species.
Types of Reproduction:
 Asexual Reproduction:
1. Fission:
- Fission is the division of cells into new cells as a method of creating
more cells.
- Many different patterns of fission have been observed.
1) Binary fission: Many bacteria and protozoa simply split into 2 equal
halves during cell division.
- In organisms such as Amoeba, the splitting of two cells during
division can take place in any plane.
- In Leishmania (Cause Kala-azar) Parasite have a whip-like
structure at one end of the cell. In such organisms, binary fission occurs
in a definite orientation in relation to this structure.

2) Multiple fission: In malarial parasite, Plasmodium divide into

many daughter cells simultaneously by multiple fission.
2. Fragmentation:
- Fragmentation is a type of asexual reproduction where an organism
breaks into pieces or fragments, and each fragment grows into a new
organism.
Example: Spirogyra

3. Regeneration:
- Regeneration is a type of asexual reproduction in which the
organism is capable of regrowing certain body parts.
- Regeneration occurs via mitosis.
Example: Lizards can regenerate their tails.
- Starfish can regenerate their arms.
- Humans have the ability to regenerate their liver to certain extent.
4. Budding:
- Budding is a type of asexual reproduction where a new organism
grows from a bud, or outgrowth on a parent organism.
Example: In hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated
cell division at one specific site. These buds develop into tiny
individuals and when fully mature, detach from the parent body and
become new independent individuals.

5. Vegetative propagation:
- Vegetative propagation is an asexual reproduction in plants where new
plants are grown from vegetative parts of the parent plant, such as the
root, stems and leaves.
- This method is used in methods such as layering or grafting to grow
many plants like sugarcane, roses or grapes for agriculture purposes.
- Similarly buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of
Bryophyllum fall on the soil and develop into new plants.
Advantages:
1) Earlier production of flowers and fruits.
2) Such methods also make possible the propagation of plants such as
Banana, Orange, Rose and Jasmine that have lost the capacity to
produce seeds.
3) All plants are genetically similar enough to the parent plant to have
all its characteristics.

6. Spore formation:
- Spore formation is a type of asexual reproduction that produces
reproductive cells called spores that can grow into new organisms
without fusing with another cell.
- Spores are created by many organisms, including bacteria, algae,
fungi and plants.
Example: The thread like structures that developed on the bread is the
Rhizopus fungus (Bread mould). In Rhizopus, the hyphae are not
reproductive parts. In the other hand, the sporangia contain spores that
can develop into new Rhizopus individuals.
Sexual Reproduction:
- When new generations are to be created from a single individual
without gametes then it is known as asexual reproduction.
- Whereas the mode of reproduction involving both male and female
sexes to produce new generation is called Sexual reproduction.
- Limitations of asexual mode of reproduction are as follows:
1. It hinders diversity.
2. Organisms reproduce very quickly, as a result number of
offsprings increase leading to increased competition.
3. Inheritance is possible from only single parent.
4. Population cannot be controlled.
5. Organisms cannot adapt easily.
6. The niche (Position in ecosystem) filled up quickly.
Why sexual mode of Reproduction???
- The single cell divides to form 2 cells and it involves copying of
DNA as well as of the cellular apparatus.
- The mechanism of DNA copying is not absolutely accurate.
- Sexual reproduction involves fusion of male and female gametes.
- The variation generated due to DNA copying during gamete
formation moves on to the next generation.
- In short, Sexual reproduction is important because it increases
genetic variation in a population, which can help species survive
and evolve.
Types and Characteristics of germ cells:
- Type of germ cells: Male gametes and Female gametes.
Male gametes:
- They are smaller and motile.
- They are called Sperms.
Female gametes:
- They are larger and contain nutrients.
- They are called egg cells.
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants:
- Flower is the reproductive organ in flowering plants.

- Parts of a flower:
1) Sepals
2) Petals
3) Stamens (Male reproductive part)
4) Pistils (Female reproductive part)

1) Sepals:
- Sepals protect the flower bud.
- For photosynthesis.
- Provide support when flower blooms.

2) Petals:
- Petals helps to attract pollinating agents, such as bees, butterflies
and birds to help with pollination.

3) Stamens:
- It is a male reproductive part.
- It is made up of 2 parts: An anther and filament.
- Anther: Produce pollen grains that are yellowish in colour.
- Filament: To hold up and support the anther.
 4) Pistils:
- It is a female reproductive part.
- It is present in the centre of a flower.
- It is made up of 3 parts: Stigma, Style and Ovary.
- Stigma: Terminal sticky part.
- Style: Middle elongated part.
- Ovary: Bottom swollen part.

Types of Flowers on the basis of reproductive parts:

1) Unisexual flower: When flower contains either Stamens (Male
reproductive part) or Pistils (Female reproductive part).
Example: Papaya, Watermelon.

2) Bisexual flower: When flower contains both Stamens (Male

reproductive part) and Pistils (Female reproductive part).
Example: Hibiscus, Mustard, Datura.

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants:

- Pollen grains are produced in anther of a stamen while female
gametes (egg cells) are produced in each ovule of an ovary.
 Pollination: A process of transfer of pollen from anther of stamen
to the stigma of pistil is called Pollination.
Types of Pollination:
1) Self-pollination: Transfer of pollen occurs in the same flower.
2) Cross-pollination: Transfer of pollen occurs from one flower to
another.
- This is achieved by pollinating agents like wind, water and
animals.

 Fertilisation:
- Pollens stick to stigma.
- Pollen grain germinates to give rise to pollen tube which develops
in style and reaches up to ovule.
- The male germ cell produced by pollen grain fuses with female
gametes present in the ovule. This fusion of the germ cells is called
fertilisation.
- Zygote is formed due to the process of fertilisation.
- Zygote is capable of growing into a new plant.

 Post fertilisation events:

- After fertilisation, zygote divides several times to form an embryo
within the ovule.
- The ovule develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into a
seed.
- The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
- The seed contains the future plant or embryo which develops into a
seedling under favourable condition. This process is called seed
germination.

Reproduction in human beings:

- The age at which the reproductive organs become functional and
the boys and girls become sexually mature is known as ‘Puberty’.
Common changes occur during puberty:
In girls:
1) Overy starts secreting female sex hormones.
2) Development of reproductive organs and breasts with darkening
of the skin of the nipples.
3) Menstrual cycle starts.
 In boys:
1) Testes starts secreting male sex hormones.
2) Testes starts producing sperms.
3) New hair growth.
4) Body becomes more muscular.
5) The voice begins to crack.
6) Shoulders and chest broaden.
7) The penis occasionally begins to become enlarged and erect.

Male Reproductive System:

- The male reproductive system consists of two parts:
1) Part which produce the germ cells.
2) Part that delivers the germ cells to the site of fertilisation.

- The male reproductive system is consisting of:

1) Testes:
- 1 pair
- Location: Outside the abdominal cavity in scrotum.
- Formation of germ cells or sperms takes place in testes.
- Sperm formation requires 2-3℃ lower temperature than the normal
body temperature.
- Testes secrets male sex hormone – Testosterone
- In boys, testosterone regulates the formation of sperms and brings
about secondary sexual changes at the time of puberty.
2) Vas deference:
- The sperms formed are delivered through these ducts unite with a
tube coming from the urinary bladder.
3) Penis:
- Helps in urination and sexual intercourse.
4) Urethra:
- It is a common passage for the sperms and urine.
5) Glands: Seminal vesicle, Prostate gland, Bulbourethral gland.
 Seminal vesicles: A pair of glands that produce secretions that
nourish sperm cells and make up the majority of semen.
 Prostate gland: A walnut-sized gland that produce a milky white
fluid that nourishes sperm and makes up the large part of semen.
 Bulbourethral gland: These glands produce a clear fluid that is
released during sexual activity before ejaculation.

Sperms:
- Male gametes
- It has 3 parts: Head, Midpiece and Tail.
- Sperms contains DNA in the head which contain genetic
information.
- Mitochondria in the midpiece that provides energy to the sperm
cell.
- Tail/Flagellum helps in movement towards the female germ cell.
Female Reproductive System:
- Female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of
oviducts (fallopian tubes), a uterus, a vagina and vaginal opening.

1) Ovary:
- One pair of ovaries.
- Location: Inside the abdominal cavity of a women.
- The female germ cells (Ova) are formed in the ovaries.
- Ovary produces female sex hormones such as Estrogen and
Progesterone.
- When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain thousands of
immature eggs. On reaching puberty, some of these egg cells start
maturing.
- One egg is produced every month by one of the ovaries.
2) Oviduct (Fallopian tube):
- One pair of oviducts are present which are not attached to ovaries.
- The egg is carried from the ovary to the uterus (womb) through a
thin oviduct.
3) Uterus: The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-like structure
called uterus.
- The implantation and development of embryo occurs here. The distal
narrow end of uterus is called Cervix.
4) Vagina:
- Through the cervix, uterus opens in to tubular structure vagina.
- Vagina opens outside through the vaginal opening.
- The sperms enter through the vaginal passage during sexual
intercourse.

Process of implantation of embryo till child birth:

Fertilisation:
- The ovary releases ovum which enters in the oviduct (fallopian
tube).
- The sperm enters through the vaginal passage during sexual
intercourse.
- Sperm travel upwards and reach the oviduct where they may
fertilise the egg.
Implantation and Development:
- The fertilised egg (zygote) starts dividing and forms a ball of cells
or embryo.
- The uterus prepares itself every month to receive and nurture the
growing embryo.
- The embryo is implanted in the lining of uterus where it continuous
to grow and completes foetal growth.
- The lining of uterus thickens and is richly supplied with blood to
nourish the growing embryo during pregnancy.
Placenta:
- The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of
a special tissue called Placenta.
- It contains villi on the embryo’s side of the tissue.
- The developing embryo also generates waste substances which can
be removed by transferring them into mother’s blood through the
placenta.
Child Birth:
- The development of the foetus inside the mother’s body takes
approximately 9 months.
- The child is born as a result of rhythmic contraction of the uterine
muscles.

Menstruation:
- Menstruation is the periodic event taking place after every 28 days
in mature women.
- This is a cyclic process, interrupted only by pregnancy.
- During menstruation, there is bleeding through vaginal opening.
- The cell debris and unfertilised ovum is given out of the body
during menstruation.
- If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one day.
- Since the ovary releases one egg every month to receive a fertilised
egg.
- Uterine lining becomes thick, spongy and richly supplied with
blood.
- But if fertilisation does not occur then this lining is not needed any
longer. So, the lining slowly breaks and comes out through the
vaginal opening as blood and mucus.
- This cycle takes place roughly every month and is called
menstruation.
- It usually lasts for about 2 to 8 days.
Reproductive Health:
- Individuals are under many different kinds of pressure about sexual
maturation.
- There can be pressure from friends for participating in many
activities, whether individually really want to or not.
- There can be pressure from families to get married and start having
children.
- There can be pressure from government agencies to avoid having
children.
- There can be pressure of performance during sexual act.
Population:
- Population is a group of individuals of a single species.
- Reproduction is the process by which population can be increased.
- The increasing population can cause problems such as food
scarcity, low standard of living, depletion of natural resources and
inequality among people.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD):

- An infection transmitted through sexual contact, caused by
bacteria, viruses or parasites.
Bacterial infections: Syphilis, Gonorrhoea
Viral Infections: Warts, HIV-AIDS
- Using a condom during sexual act helps to prevent transmission of
many such infections to some extent.

Methods for Population Control:

- There are many ways that have been devised to avoid pregnancy
and there by achieving population control.
- Contraceptive methods fall in following categories:
1) Mechanical barrier:
- By the use of its sperm does not reach the egg.
- Condoms or similar barriers worn in the vagina can serve this
purpose.
- Other contraceptive Intrauterine Devices (IUD) such as loop or
copper-T are placed in the uterus to prevent pregnancy. It may cause
side effects due to irritation of the uterus.
2) Chemical methods:
- In this method, contraceptive pills have to be taken orally by female.
- The drugs in contraceptive pills change the hormonal balance of the
female body in such a way that eggs are not released making
fertilisation impossible.
- Since they change hormonal balances, they can cause side-effects
too.
3) Surgical methods:
- If the Vas deference in the male is blocked, sperm transfer will be
prevented. The method is called as Vasectomy.
- If the fallopian tube in the female is blocked, the egg will not be able
to reach the uterus. The method is called as Tubectomy.
- In both cases, fertilisation will not take place.
- Surgical methods can be used for such blocks, while surgical
methods are safe in the long run, surgery itself can cause infections
and other problems if not performed properly.