Mod 2

Chapter 9

Section 9.1 Measuring Length; The Metric System

Objective 9.1.1 – Use dimensional analysis to change units of measurement.
Summary
To measure an object is to assign a number to its size. The number representing its measure from end to end is
called its length. The result obtained from measuring length is called a linear measurement, stated in linear
units. The English or customary measurement system includes measurements such as inches, feet, yards,
yards, and miles. You can convert between these linear measurement units in the English system using these
relationships:
12 in.=1 ft, 3 ft=1 yd, 36 in.=1 yd, 5280 ft=1 mi
Using dimensional analysis to convert from one measurement unit to another, you would multiply the given
measurement by a unit fraction with the unit of measurement that needs to be introduced in the numerator and
the unit of measurement that needs to be eliminated in the denominator.
Guided Example
Convert:
a. 78 inches to feet
b. 17,160 feet to miles
c. 3 inches to yards.

a. 78 in. =78in.1⋅1 ft12in.=6.5 ft

b. 17,160 ft =17,160ft1⋅1 mi5280ft=3.25 mi

c. 3 in.=3in.1⋅1 yd36in.=112 yd
Practice (Exercises 1, 5, & 13, p. 604)
Use dimensional analysis to convert the quantity to the indicated unit.
1. 30 in. to ft
2. 6 in. to yd
3. 23,760 ft to mi
Objective 9.1.2 – Understand and use metric prefixes.
Summary
Table 9.1 summarizes the more commonly used metric prefixes and their meanings.
TABLE 9.1 Commonly Used Metric Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Meaning

kilo k 1000×base unit

hecto h 100×base unit

deka da 10×base unit

deci d 110of base unit

centi c 1100of base unit

milli m 11000of base unit

The prefixes kilo, centi, and milli are used more frequently than hecto, deka, and deci. Table 9.2 applies all six
prefixes to the meter.
TABLE 9.2 Commonly Used Units of Linear Measure in the Metric System

Symbol Unit Meaning

km kilometer 1000 meters

hm hectometer 100 meters

dam dekameter 10 meters

m meter 1 meter

dm decimeter 0.1 meter

cm centimeter 0.01 meter

mm millimeter 0.001 meter

Objective 9.1.3 – Convert units within the metric system.
Summary
Although dimensional analysis can be used to convert from one unit to another within the metric system, there
is an easier, faster way to accomplish this conversion. The procedure is based on the observation that
successively smaller units involve division by 10 and successively larger units involve multiplication by 10.
The basic unit of linear measurement in the metric system is the meter (m), which is approximately 39
inches. 1 km=1000m; 1 hm=100 m, 1 dam=10 m, 1 dm=0.1 m, 1 cm=0.01 m, 1 mm=0.001 m
Refer to the following diagram to change units within the metric system.

Extended Figure Description for Objective 9.1.3 Summary

Guided Example
a. Convert 8000 meters to kilometers. 8000 m=8 km
b. Convert 53 meters to millimeters. 53 m=53,000 mm
c. Convert 604 cm to hm. 604 cm=0.0604 hm
d. Convert 6.72 dam to cm. 6.72 dam=6720 cm
Practice (Exercises 17 & 23, p. 604)
Use the diagram in the box on p. 599 and below to convert the given measurement to the unit indicated.

Extended Figure Description for Objective 9.1.3 Changing Units Within the Metric System Figure 1
1. To change from a larger unit to a smaller unit (moving to the right in the diagram), multiply by 10 fur
each step to the right. Thus, move the decimal point in the given quantity one place to the right for each
smaller unit until the desired unit is reached.
2. To change from a smaller unit to a larger unit (moving to the left in the diagram), divide by 10 for each
step to the left. Thus, move the decimal point in the given quantity one place to the left for each larger
unit until the desired unit is reached.
4. 5 m to cm
5. 0.023 mm to m
Objective 9.1.4 – Use dimensional analysis to change to and from the metric system.
Summary
English and metric equivalents are given in Table 9.3, on page 587 and reproduced below. You can use the
information in this table to construct unit fractions and use dimensional analysis to convert to and from the
metric system.
Guided Example
TABLE 9.3 English and Metric Equivalents

Extended Figure Description for Objective 9.1.4 Guided Example Figure 1

Use Table 9.3 (above and on p. 601) to:
a. convert 8 feet to centimeters
b. convert 20 meters to yards
c. convert 30 meters to inches

a. 8 ft=8ft1⋅30.48 cm1ft=243.84 cm

b. 20 m=20m1⋅1 yd0.9m≈22.22 yd
c.

Practice (Exercises 27, 35, & 43, p. 604)

Use the English and metric equivalents shown in Table 9.3 in the Guided Example, along with dimensional
analysis, to convert the given measurement to the unit indicated.
6. 14 in. to cm
7. 12 m to yd
8. 5 m to ft
Section 9.2 Measuring Area and Volume
Objective 9.2.1 – Use square units to measure area.
Summary
The area of a plane region is the number of square units contained in the given region. A state’s area is the
region within its boundaries. Its population density is its population divided by its area.
Square units in the English system: 1 ft2=144 in. 2, 1 yd2=9 ft2, 1 a=43,560 ft2=4840 yd2, 1 mi2=640 acres
Guided Example
a. The population of California is 39,512,223 and its area is 163,695 square miles.
What is California’s population density? Round to the nearest tenth.
b. Use the given figure to find its area in square units.

a. =39,512,223 people163,695 square miles

≈241.4 people per sq. mile
b. 15 square units
Practice (Exercises 3 & 53, Illinois only, p. 613-614)
1. Use the given figure to find its area in square units.

2. Find the population density, to the nearest tenth for the state of Illinois.
Illinois population: 12,671,821
Area: 57,914 mi2
Objective 9.2.2 – Use dimensional analysis to change units for area.
Summary
Some basic approximate conversions for units of area are given in Table 9.4.

TABLE 9.4 English and Metric Equivalents for Area

1 square inch (in.2)≈6.5 square centimeters (cm2)

1 square foot (ft2)≈0.09 square meter (m2)

1 square yard (yd2)≈0.8 square meter (m2)

1 square mile (mi2)≈2.6 square kilometers (km2)

1 acre≈0.4 hectare (ha)

Guided Example
Use Table 9.4 (across the page and on page 608), along with dimensional analysis, to convert the given square
unit to the square unit indicated.
a. 20 m2 to ft2.
A property in northern California is on the market for $415,000 for 1.8 acres.
b. Find the area of the property in hectares.
c. What is the price per hectare?

a. 20m21⋅1ft20.09m2≈222.22ft2

b. =1.8 acres1⋅0.4ha1 acres≈0.72ha

c. price per hectare =$415,0000.72ha≈$576,389 per hectare
Practice (Exercises 7 & 55, p. 613-614)
3. Use Table 9.4 (below and on page 608), along with dimensional analysis, to convert the given square
unit to the square unit indicated.
TABLE 9.4 English and Metric Equivalents for Area

1 square inch (in.2)≈6.5 square centimeters (cm2)

1 square foot (ft2)≈0.09 square meter (m2)

1 square yard (yd2)≈0.8 square meter (m2)

1 square mile (mi2)≈2.6 square kilometers (km2)

1 acre≈0.4 hectare (ha)

30 m2 to yd2
4. Use the fact that 1 square mile=640 acres to find the area of the national park to the nearest square mile.
Everglades National Park (Florida): 1,509,154 acres
Objective 9.2.3 – Use cubic units to measure volume.
Key Terms
 Volume
 Cubic unit
Summary
A shoe box and a basketball are examples of three-dimensional figures. Volume refers to the amount of space
occupied by such figures. In order to measure this space, we begin by selecting a cubic unit. The volume
measure of a three-dimensional figure is the number of cubic units contained in its interior.
Guided Example

Extended Figure Description for Objective 9.2.3 Guided Example

Figure 1
What is the volume of the region represented by the bottom row of blocks in Figure 9.6 (p. 609)?
The volume is 9 cubic units.
Practice (Exercise 13, p. 613)
5. Use the given figure to find its volume in cubic units.
Objective 9.3.5 – Understand temperature scales.
Key Terms
 Fahrenheit temperature scale
 Celsius scale
 Kelvin scale
Summary
The Fahrenheit temperature scale, the one we are accustomed to, was established in 1714 by the German
physicist Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit. Because temperature is a measure of heat, scientists do not find negative
temperatures meaningful in their work. In 1948, the British physicist Lord Kelvin introduced a third
temperature scale called the Kelvin scale. Water freezes at 273.15 K (read “K” or “Kelvins,” not “degrees
Kelvin”) and boils at 373.15 K. The Kelvin scale is the same as the Celsius scale, except in its starting (zero)
point.
To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit, use this formula: F=95C+32.
To convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius, use this formula: C=59(F−32).
To convert from Celsius to Kelvin, use this formula: K=C+273.15.
To convert from Kelvin to Celsius, use this formula: C=K−273.15.
Guided Example
a. Convert 50°C from °C to °F.
b. Convert 59°F from °F to °C

a. F=95⋅50+32=122
50°C=122°F
b. C=59(59−32)=15
59°F=15°C
Practice (Exercises 33 & 45, p. 623)
Where appropriate, round to the nearest tenth of a degree.
7. Convert 35°C from °C to °F.
8. Convert 23°F from °F to °C

Section 11.1 The Fundamental Counting Principle

Summary

The Fundamental Counting Principle with two items states, if you can choose one
item from a group of M items a second item from a group of N items, then the total
number of two-item choices is M⋅N.

For example, suppose you own three watches and ten pairs of shoes. In how many ways
can you create an outfit wearing one watch and one pair of shoes? Using the
Fundamental counting principle, the total number of outfit combinations are 3⋅10=30.
There are 30 ways to choose one watch and one pair of shoes when you have three
watches and ten pairs of shoes.

What if you have more than two groups of items? The fundamental counting
principle also states, the number of ways in which a series of successive things can
occur is found by multiplying the number of ways in which each thing can occur.

Example: A hotel safe requires a four-digit passcode that can contain the digits 0-9. How
many different passcodes are possible? There are ten possible numbers that can be used
for each of the four digits. We use the Fundamental Counting Principle to find the number
of possible passcodes.

10⋅10⋅10⋅10=104=10,000 passcodes

Guided Example

a. A restaurant offers 10 appetizers and 15 main courses. In how many ways can you
order a two-course meal?

b. You are taking a multiple-choice test that has six questions. Each of the questions
has three answer choices, with one correct answer per question. If you select one
of these three choices for each question and leave nothing blank, in how many
ways can you answer the questions?

a. Multiply the number of choices for each of the two courses of the meal:

b. We use the Fundamental Counting Principle to determine the number of ways that
you can answer the questions on the test. Multiply the number of choices, 3, for
each of the six questions. There are 3⋅3⋅3⋅3⋅3⋅3=729 ways.

Practice (Exercises 1 & 15, p.714-715)

1. A restaurant offers eight appetizers and ten main courses. In how many ways can a
person order a two-course meal?

2. You are taking a multiple-choice test that has five questions. Each of the questions
has three answer choices, with one correct answer per question. If you select one
of these three choices for each question and leave nothing blank, in how many
ways can you answer the questions?
Section 11.2 Permutations

Objective 11.2.1 – use the Fundamental Counting Principle to count permutations.

Summary

A permutation is an ordered arrangement of items that occur when

 No item is used more than once.

 The order of arrangement makes a difference.

For example, suppose you have eight boxes of cookies that you need to put away in the
pantry. How many ways can the seven boxes be arranged? We use the Fundamental
Counting Principle to find the number of ways the seven boxes can be arranged. Multiply
the choices: 8⋅7⋅6⋅5⋅4⋅3⋅2⋅1=40,320. Thus, you can arrange the boxes of cookies 40,320
ways. There are 40,320 different possible permutations.

Example: You want to create a music playlist of your top five favorite songs. How many
ways can the five songs be arranged?

We use the Fundamental Counting Principle to find the number of ways the five songs
can be arranged. Multiply the choices: 5⋅4⋅3⋅2⋅1=120. Thus, you can arrange the songs
120 ways. There are 120 different possible permutations.

Guided Example

a. In how many ways can you arrange five books along a shelf, assuming that the
order of the books makes a difference?

The number of choices decreases by 1 each time a book is selected.

Practice (Exercise 1 p.722)

1. Six performers are to present their comedy acts on a weekend evening at a

comedy club. How many different ways are there to schedule their appearances?
Objective 11.2.2 – Evaluate factorial expressions.

Summary

The notation called a factorial can be used to write the product of positive integers
from n down through 1. For example,

In algebraic terms, factorial notation states, if n is a positive integer, the notation n!

(read “n factorial”) is the product of all positive integers from n down through 1.

n!=n(n−1)(n−2)⋯(3)(2)(1)

Additionally, 0! (zero factorial), by definition is 1⋅0!=1

There are different methods for evaluating factorial expressions like 9!6!. To begin we
can rewrite the factorials in the numerator and denominator in expanded form.

9!6!=9⋅8⋅7⋅6⋅5⋅4⋅3⋅2⋅1 6⋅5⋅4⋅3⋅2⋅ 1

Notice the common products in both the numerator and denominator which can be
written as 6!.

9!6!=9⋅8⋅7⋅6⋅5⋅4⋅3⋅2⋅1⋅6⋅5⋅4⋅3⋅2⋅1=9⋅8⋅7⋅6!6!

Thus, 9!6!=504.

Examples: Evaluate the following factorial expressions.

a. 16!9!

16!9!=16⋅15⋅14⋅13⋅12⋅11⋅10⋅9! 9!=16⋅15⋅14⋅13⋅12⋅11⋅10⋅9!9!=57,657,600

b. 40!39!

40!39!=40⋅39! 39!=40⋅39! 39!=40

Guided Example

Evaluate without using a calculator’s factorial key.

a. 16!/11!

b. 100!99!
 a.

b. 100!99!=100⋅99!99!=100⋅99!99!=100

Practice (Exercises 15 & 21, p.723)

Evaluate each factorial expression.

2. 29!/25!

3. 104!102!

Objective 11.2.3 – Use the permutations formula.

Summary

The permutations formula allows you to determine the number of permutations or

arrangements given specific parameters. The notation nPr means the number of possible
permutations of n things taken r at a time and the algebraic notation is, nPr=n!(n−r)!.

For example, suppose eight of your friends want to plan a trip and as a group they
decided to create a three-person planning committee to handle the trip logistics. In how
many ways can the planning committee be filled? There are eight possibilities for the
first committee member to be chosen. Then there will be seven different possibilities for
the second committee member, and six different possibilities for the third committee
member. The total number of committee member orders is 8⋅7⋅6=336. We can say, the
number of permutations of 8 people taken 3 at a time is 336.

We can solve the same problem using the permutations formula, nPr=n!(n−r)!,
with n=8 and r=3.

9P3=8!(8−3)!=8!5!=8⋅7⋅6⋅5!5!=8⋅7⋅6⋅5!5!=8⋅7⋅6=336

Example: There are 18 players on a volleyball roster and the coach needs to select six
starting players. In how many ways can the coach select six starters from 18 players on
the roster?

Using the permutations formula, nPr=n!(n−r)!, with n=18 and r=6, we have

18P6=18!(18−6)!=18!12!=18⋅17⋅16⋅15⋅14⋅13⋅12!12!=18⋅17⋅16⋅15⋅14⋅13⋅12!12!
=18⋅17⋅16⋅15⋅14⋅13=13,366,080.

There are 13,366,080 different ways of selecting 6 starters from 18 players.

Guided Example
 a. A corporation has seven members on its board of directors. In how many different
ways can it elect a president, vice-president, secretary, and treasurer?

b. How many different programming schedules can be arranged by choosing five

situation comedies from a collection of nine classic sitcoms?

a.

b. 9P5=9!(9−5)!=9!4!=9⋅8⋅7⋅6⋅5⋅4!4!=15,120

Practice (Exercises 41 & 43, p.723)

4. A club with ten members is to choose three officers – president, vice-president, and
secretary-treasurer. If each office is to be held by one person and no person can
hold more than one office, in how many ways can those offices be filled?

5. For a segment of a radio show, a disc jockey can play 7 songs. If there are 13 songs
to select from, in how many ways can the program for this segment be arranged?
Section 11.3 Combinations

Objective 11.3.1 – Distinguish between permutation and combination problems.

Summary

A combination is a group of items taken without regard to their order.

Where permutation problems involve situations in which order matters.

A combination of items occurs when

 The items are selected from the same group.

 No item is used more than once.

 The order of the items makes no difference.

A permutation is an ordered arrangement of items that occur when

 No item is used more than once.

 The order of arrangement makes a difference.

Can you distinguish between a combination and a permutation? For each of the following
problems, determine whether the problem is one involving permutations or
combinations. (It is not necessary to solve the problem.)

a. A yogurt shop offers 12 assorted flavors of yogurt. One of its items is a bowl
consisting of four distinct flavors. How many such bowls are possible?

A bowl including four flavors is to be formed from 12 distinct flavors. The order in which
the four yogurt flavors are put into the bowl is irrelevant. Different orderings of flavors
does not change the problem, so this is a problem involving combinations.

b. Medals are given at a race for first, second and third place winners. There were 30
people running the race on Saturday. How many different outcomes are possible
for these three positions?

Three winners are chosen from 30 people running the race. The order in which the
winners are choses makes a difference because each place (first, second, third) is
different. Thus, order matters and this problem involves permutations.

Guided Example

For each of the following problems, determine whether the problem is one involving
permutations or combinations.

a. How many ways can you select 6 free song downloads from a list of 200 songs?

b. In a race in which there are 50 runners and no ties, in how many ways can the first
three finishers come in?

a. Order does not matter. This problem involves combinations.

 b. Order matters. This problem involves permutations.

Practice (Exercises 1 & 3, p.729)

For the following problem, determine whether the problem is one involving permutations
or combinations.

1. A medical researcher needs 6 people to test the effectiveness of an experimental

drug. If 13 people have volunteered for the test, in how many ways can 6 people
be selected?

2. How many different four-letter passwords can be formed from the letters A, B, C, D,
E, F, and G if no repetition of letters is allowed?
Objective 11.3.2 – Solve problems involving combinations using the combinations
formula.

Summary

The combinations formula uses the notation nCr and means the number of possible
combinations of n things taken r at a time. The algebraic notation is, nCr=n!(n−r)!r!.

For example, in the card game of Go Fish, a person is dealt 5 cards from a standard 52-
card deck. The order in which the 5 cards are received does not matter. How many
different 5-card hands are possible? Because the order of the 5 cards dealt does not
matter, this is a problem involving combinations. We are looking for the number of
combinations of n=52 cards drawn r=5 at a time. We use the formula

nCr=n!(n−r)!r! with n=52 and r=5. =2,598,960

Example: You walk dogs as a part time job in the summer. You have a client with five
dogs however, you only walk three dogs at any given time. How many different
combinations are possible if you walk three of the five dogs? The order of selecting three
dogs does not matter. This is a problem of selecting r=3 dogs from a group of n=5 dogs.
We are looking for the number of combinations of five things taken three at a time. We
use the formula nCr=n!(n−r)!r! with n=5 and r=3.

5C3=5!(5−3)!3!=5!2!3!=5⋅4⋅3!2⋅1⋅3!=5⋅4⋅3!2⋅1⋅3!=10 There are 10 ways to walk three

dogs from a dog family of five.

Guided Example

a. You volunteer to pet-sit for your friend who has seven different animals. How many
different pet combinations are possible if you take three of the seven pets?

b. How many different 4-card hands can be dealt from a deck that has 16 different
cards?

a.

b. 16C4=16!(16−4)!4!=16!12!4!=1820

Practice (Exercises 29 & 33, p.729)

3. An election ballot asks voters to select three city commissioners from a group of
six candidates. In how many ways can this be done?
 4. You volunteer to help drive children at a charity event to the zoo, but you can fit
only 8 of the 17 children present in your van. How many different groups of 8
children can you drive?

Section 11.4 Fundamentals of Probability

Objective 11.4.1 – Compute theoretical probability.

Summary

If the event E has n(E) equally likely outcomes and its sample space S has n(S) equally
likely outcomes, the theoretical probability of an event E, denoted
by P(E) is P(E)=number of outcomes in event Etotal number of possible outcomes=n(E)n(
S).

Suppose you roll a 12-sided dice that is labeled 1-12. What is the probability of rolling a
4? The sample space S={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12} with n(S)=12. The probability of
“rolling a 4” describes E={4}.

This event can occur in one

way: n(E)=1. P(4)=number of outcomes that result in 4total number of possible outcome
s=n(E)n(S)=112.

The probability of rolling a 4 is 112.

Example. Suppose you roll a 12-sided dice that is labeled 1-12. What is the probability of
rolling a number greater than 4?

The sample space S={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12} with n(S)=12. The probability of

“rolling a number greater than 4” describes E={5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12}. This event can
occur in one
way: n(E)=8. P(a number greater than 4)=number of outcomes that result in a number gr
eater than 4total number of possible outcomes=n(E)n(S)=812=23.

The probability of rolling a number greater than 4 is 23.

Guided Example

A six-sided die is rolled once. Find the probability of rolling

a. a 2

b. a number less than 4

c. a number greater than 7

d. a number less than 7

S={1,2,3,4,5,6}

a. The event of getting a 2 can occur in one way.

P(2)=number of ways a 2 can occurtotal number of possible outcomes=16

 b. The event of getting a number less than 4 can occur in three ways: 1, 2, 3.

P(less than 4)=number of ways a number less than 4 can occurtotal number of possible
outcomes=36=12

c. The event of getting a number greater than 7 cannot occur.

P(greater than 7)=number of ways a number greater than 7 can occurtotal number of po
ssible outcomes=06=0

The probability of an event that cannot occur is 0.

d. The event of getting a number less than 7 can occur in six ways: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

P(less than 7)=number of ways a number less than 7 can occurtotal number of possible
outcomes=66=1

The probability of any certain event is 1.

Practice (Exercises 1, 3, 7, & 9, p.737)

A six-sided die is rolled once. Find the probability of rolling

1. a 4

2. an odd number

3. a number less than 20

4. a number greater than 20

Objective 11.4.2 – Compute empirical probability.

Summary

Theoretical probability is based on a set of equally likely outcomes and the number of
elements in the set. By contrast, empirical probability applies to situations in which
we observe how frequently an event occurs. The empirical probability of
event E is P(E)=observed number of times E occurstotal number of observed occurrences
.

Suppose you toss a coin 8 times and heads was observed 6 times. What is the probability
of observing heads, or P(H)? Since we are told a coin was tossed 8 times, we will find the
empirical probability.

However, the empirical probability

is P(heads)=observed number of times heads occurstotal number of observed occurrenc
es=68=34.

The theoretical probability of observing heads in a coin toss

is P(H)=number of outcomes tossing a headtotal number of possible outcomes=12. The
sample space S={H,T} with n(S)=2. The probability of “tossing a head”
describes E={T}.

Example: The table shows the results from a movie preference survey. If one person is
randomly selected, what is the probability that the person prefers comedies?

Action Movies Comedies Total

Male 10 17 27

Female 9 20 29

Total 19 37 56

The probability of selecting a person who prefers comedies

is P(prefers comedies)=number of people who prefer comediestotal number of possible o
utcomes=3756≈0.66. The empirical probability of selecting a person who prefers
comedies is approximately 0.66.

Guided Example
If one person is randomly selected from the population described in Table 11.3 (p. 736),
find the probability, expressed as a decimal rounded to the nearest hundredth, that the
person

a. has never been married.

b. is male.

a. P(never married)=number of persons never marriedtotal number of U.S. adults=74

242≈0.31

b. P(male)=number of malestotal number of U.S. adults=118242≈0.49

TABLE 11.3 Marital of the U.S. Population, Age 15 or Older, 2010, in Millions

Source: U.S. Census Bureau

Extended Figure Description for Objective 11.4.2 Guided Example Figure 1

Practice (Exercises 61 & 63, p.739)

Use the table to find the probability, expressed as a decimal rounded to the nearest
hundredth, that a randomly selected American who moved was

5. an owner

6. a person who moved within the same state

Number of People in the United States in 2020 Who Moved, in Millions

Move Moved Moved

d to to to
Same Differe Differe
State nt nt
State Countr
y

Own 11.9 1.8 0.2

er
 Move Moved Moved
d to to to
Same Differe Differe
State nt nt
State Countr
y

Rent 16.8 2.4 0.7

er

Section 11.5 Probability with the Fundamental Counting Principle, Permutations, and
Combinations

Summary

Four boys and three girls line up at the classroom door to be excused for recess. Find the
probability that the first person in line is a girl and the last person in line is a boy.

We want to
find P(number of permutations with a girl first, boy last)=number of permutations with a
girl first, boy lasttotal number of possible permutations.

First, use the Fundamental Counting Principal to find the total number of
possible permutations. There are 7⋅6⋅5⋅4⋅3⋅2⋅1=5040 possible permutations.
Equivalently, there are 5040 different ways seven children can line up for recess.

We can also use the Fundamental Counting Principal to find the number of permutations
with a girl first and a boy last. These conditions can be shown as follows:

First Secon Thir Fourt Fift Sixt Seventh

d d h h h

3 4
choices choices
 for a for a
girl boy

Next, fill in the number of choices for positions two through six.

First Secon Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Sevent

d h

3 5 4 3 2 1 4
choices choice choice choice choice choic choices
for a s s s s e for a
girl boy

Thus, there are 3⋅5⋅4⋅3⋅2⋅1⋅4, or 1440 possible permutations. Equivalently, there are 1440
ways for a girl to be first in line and boy to be last in line for recess.

Now we can return to our probability fraction.

P(number of permutations with a girl first, boy last)=number of permutations with a girl fi
rst, boy lasttotal number of possible permutations=14405040=27.

The probability of a girl in line first and a boy in line last is 27.

Guided Example

Consider six jokes told by Groucho Marx, Tim Vine, Steven Wright, Jimmy Fallon, Jerry
Seinfeld, and Phyllis Diller. Each joke is written on one of six cards which are randomly
drawn one card at a time. The order in which the cards are drawn determines the order
in which the jokes are delivered.

What is the probability that a joke by a comic whose first name begins with G is told first
and a man’s joke is delivered last?

The total number of permutations=6!=6⋅5⋅4⋅3⋅2⋅1=720

For the given outcome there is 1 choice (first name beginning with G) for the first joke,
which would leave 4 choices for the last joke (the 4 remaining men). The remaining jokes
have 4, 3, 2, and 1 choice respectively.
Practice (Exercises 1 & 3a, p.745)

1. Martha, Lee, Nancy, Paul, and Armando have all been invited to a dinner party.
They arrive randomly, and each person arrives at a different time.

a. In how many ways can they arrive?

b. In how many ways can Martha arrive first and Armando last?

c. Find the probability that Martha will arrive first and Armando last.

2. Six stand-up comics, A, B, C, D, E, and F, are to perform on a single evening at a

comedy club. The order of performance is determined by random selection. Find
the probability that

a. Comic E will perform first.

b. Comic C will perform fifth and comic B will perform last.

Objective 11.5.2 – Compute probabilities with combinations.

Summary

A sales team consists of 8 women and 4 men. Four members are selected at random to
attend a strategy meeting. Find the probability that the selected group consists of two
women and two men. We begin with the probability of selecting two women and two
men.

P(2 women, 2 men)=number of ways of selecting 2 women and 2 mentotal number of po

ssible combinations.

First, we consider the denominator of the probability fraction. We are

selecting r=4 people from a total group of n=12 people (8 women and 4 men). The total
number of possible combinations is
12C4=12!(12−4)!4!=12!8!4!=12⋅11⋅10⋅9⋅8!8!⋅4⋅3⋅2⋅1=495. There are 495 possible four-
person selections.

Next, consider the numerator of the probability fraction. We are interested in the number
of ways of selecting two women and two men. The number of ways selecting r=2 women
from n=8 women is 2C8=8!(8−2)!2!=8!6!2!=8⋅7⋅6!6!⋅2⋅1=28.

The number of ways selecting r=2 men from n=4 men is 2C4=4!(4−2)!2!=4!2!2!=4⋅3⋅2!
2!⋅2⋅1=6.

By the Fundamental Counting Principle, the number of ways of selecting 2 women and 2
men is 2C8⋅2C4=28⋅6=168.

Now we can fill in the numbers in our probability

fraction. P(2 women, 2 men)=number of ways of selecting 2 women and 2 mentotal num
ber of possible combinations=168495=56165

The probability that the group selected to attend the strategy meeting consists of two
women and two men is 56165.

Guided Example

A club consists of six Democrats and four Republicans. Three members are selected at
random to attend a conference.

a. Find the probability that the selected group consists of three democrats.

b. Find the probability that the selected group consists of two Democrats and one
Republican.

a. The total number of combinations:

10C3=10!(10−3)!3!=10!7!3!=10⋅9⋅8⋅7!7!3⋅2⋅1=120

Select 3 out of 6 Democrats:

6C3=6!(6−3)!3!=6!3!3!=6⋅5⋅4⋅3!3!⋅3⋅2⋅1=20

b. Total number of combinations from part a) is 120.

Select 2 out of 6 Democrats:

6C2=6!(6−2)!2!=6!4!2!=6⋅5⋅4!4!2!=6⋅5⋅4!4!2!=15

Select 1 out of 4 Republicans:

4C1=4!(4−1)!1!=4!3!1!=4⋅3!3!=4⋅3!3!=4

total number of combinations of 2 Democrats and 1 Republican: 15×4=60

Practice (Exercises 11 a) & 13, p.746)

3. A box contains 25 transistors, 6 of which are defective. If 6 are selected at random,

find the probability that all are defective.

4. A city council consists of six Democrats and four Republicans. If a committee of

three people is selected, find the probability of selecting one Democrat and two
Republicans.

Objective 11.6.2 – Find the probability of one event or a second event occurring.

Summary

When two events cannot occur simultaneously the events are called mutually
exclusive. For example, suppose you randomly selected one card from a deck of 52
cards. Let A be the event of selecting an ace and B be the event of selecting a king. Only
one card is selected so it is impossible to get both an ace and a king. Thus, A and B are
mutually exclusive.

If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then P(A or B)=P(A)+P(B). Using set
notation, P(A∪B)=P(A)+P(B).

For example, suppose a jar has four white marbles, three red marbles and three blue
marbles. Find the probability of selecting a white or red marble.
We find the probability that either of these mutually exclusive events will occur by
adding their individual probabilities.

P(white marble or red marble)=P(white marble)+P(red marble)=410+310=710. The

probability of selecting a white or red marble is 710.

It is possible to find the probability of two events A and B, where events A and B are not
mutually exclusive. If A and B are not mutually exclusive events, then P(A or B)=P(A)
+P(B)−P(A and B). Using set notation, P(A∪B)=P(A)+P(B)−P(A∩B).

For example, suppose you randomly selected one card from a deck of 52 cards. Find the
probability of selecting a spade or a king.

In this problem we cannot simply find the sum of each event individually since there is
one king of spades. Thus, we need to subtract the probability of selecting the king of
spades.

P(spade or king)=P(spade)+P(king)−P(king of spades)=1352+452−152=1652=413.

Guided Example

a. If you roll a single, six-sided die, what is the probability of getting either a 4 or a 5?

b. In a group of 50 students, 23 take math, 11 take psychology, and 7 take both math
and psychology. If one student is selected at random, find the probability that the
student takes math or psychology

a. P(4 or 5)=P(4)+P(5)=16+16=26=13

b. P(math or psych)=P(math)+P(psych)−P(math and psych)=2350+1150−750=2750

Practice (Exercises 19 & 23, p.758)

3. If you randomly select one card from a standard 52-card deck, find the probability
of selecting a red 2 or a black 3.

4. The mathematics faculty at a college consists of 8 professors, 12 associate

professors, 14 assistant professors, and10 instructors. If one faculty member is
randomly selected, find the probability of choosing a professor or an instructor.