Mod 1

Section 1.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Objective 1.1.1 – Understand and use inductive reasoning.
Summary
We use inductive reasoning when we observe a series of events and then make a general conclusion about the
situation at hand. This process is common in scientific inquiry; the conclusion is called a hypothesis or
a conjecture. It is important to note that the hypothesis made might or might not be true. In mathematics we try
to prove if a conjecture is true based on mathematical facts. If there is just one case for which the conjecture
does not hold, then the conjecture is false. Such a case is called a counterexample.
Guided Example
Identify a pattern in each list of numbers. Then use this pattern to find the next number.
a. 3, 9, 15, 21, 27,
b. 2, 10, 50, 250,
c. 3, 6, 18, 72, 144, 432,
d. 1, 9, 17, 3, 11, 19, 5, 13, 21,
a. Add 6 each time.

3, 9, 15, 21, 27, 33

b. Multiply by 5 each time.

2, 10, 50, 250, 1250

c. Cycle multiplying by 2, 3, 4.
6, 18, 72, 144, 432, 1728, 3456
d. Cycle adding 8, adding 8, subtracting 14.

9, 17, 3, 11, 19, 5, 13, 21, 7

Practice (Exercises 9, 15, & 25, p. 11)
Identify a pattern in each list of numbers. Then use this pattern to find the next number.
1. 8, 12, 16, 20, 24
2. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16
3. 3, 7, 12, 18, 24, 33
 Objective 1.1.2 – Understand and use deductive reasoning.
 Deductive reasoning is the process of proving a specific conclusion from one or more general
statements. A conclusion that is proved to be true by deductive reasoning is called a theorem. A letter
used to represent any number in a collection of numbers is called a variable.
Guided Example
Select a number. Multiply the number by 4. Add 6 to the product. Divide this sum by 2. Subtract 3 from the
quotient.
a. Repeat this process for at least four different numbers. Write a conjecture that relates the results of this
process to the original number selected.
b. Use the variable n to represent the original number and use deductive reasoning to prove the conjecture
in part (a).
a.

Extended Figure Description for Objective 1.1.2 Guided Example Figure 1

b. Select a number: n
Multiply the number by 4: 4n
Add 6 to the product: 4n+6
Divide this sum by 2: 4n+6/2 =4n /2 +6/2 =2n+3
Subtract 3 from the quotient: 2n+3−3=2n
Practice (Exercises 43 & 45, p. 11)
Describe procedures that are to be applied to numbers. In each exercise,
a. Repeat the procedure for four numbers of your choice. Write a conjecture that relates the result of the
process to the original number selected.
b. Use the variable n to represent the original number and use deductive reasoning to prove the conjecture
in part (a).
4. Select a number. Multiply the number by 4. Add 8 to the product. Divide this sum by 2. Subtract 4 from
the quotient.
5. Select a number. Add 5. Double the result. Subtract 4. Divide by 2. Subtract the original selected
number.
Section 1.2 Estimation, Graphs, and Mathematical Models
Objective 1.2.1 – Use estimation techniques to arrive at an approximate answer to a problem.
Summary
Estimation is the process of arriving at an approximate answer to a question. Computations can be estimated by
using rounding that results in simplified arithmetic.
The numbers that we use for counting, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and so on, are called natural numbers. Whole
number are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, …. The numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are called digits,
from the Latin word for fingers. Digits are used to write whole numbers.
To round whole numbers
1. Look at the digit to the right of the digit where rounding is to occur.
2.
a. If the digit to the right is 5 or greater, add 1 to the digit to be rounded. Replace all digits to the
right with zeros.
b. If the digit to the right is less than 5, do not change the digit to be rounded. Replace all digits to
the right with zeros.
Guided Examples
You and a friend ate lunch at Ye Olde Cafe. The check for the meal showed soup for $3.40, tomato juice for
$2.25, a roast beef sandwich for $5.60, a chicken salad sandwich for $5.40, two coffees totaling $3.40, apple pie
for $2.85, and chocolate cake for $3.95.
a. Round the cost of each item to the nearest dollar and obtain an estimate for the food bill.
b. The total bill before tax was given as $29.85. Is this amount reasonable?
a.

b. The given bill is not reasonable. It is too high.

Practice (Exercises 23 & 25, p. 27)
Determine the estimate without using a calculator. Then use a calculator to perform the computation necessary
to obtain an exact answer. How reasonable is your estimate when compared to the actual answer?
1. Estimate the total cost of six grocery items if their prices are $3.47, $5.89, $19.98, $2.03, $11.85, and
$0.23.
2. A full-time employee who works 40 hours per week earns $19.50 per hour. Estimate that person’s annual
income.

Objective 1.2.2 – Apply estimation techniques to information given by graphs.

Summary
Rounding and other estimation techniques can be applied to data displayed in circle, bar, and line graphs.
Circle graphs, also called pie charts, show how a whole quantity is divided into parts. Circle graphs are
divided into pieces, called sectors. Percents are the result of expressing numbers as part of 100 and are often
used in circle graphs to represent data.
Bar graphs are convenient for comparing some measurable attribute of various items. The bars may be either
horizontal or vertical, and their heights or lengths are used to show the amounts of different items.
Line graphs are often used to illustrate trends over time. Some measure of time, such as months or years,
frequently appears on the horizontal axis. Amounts are generally listed on the vertical axis. Points are drawn to
represent the given information. The graph is formed by connecting the points with line segments.
Guided Example
1. Use the data for females in Figure 1.5 (p. 20) to estimate each of the following:

a. a female’s increased life expectancy, rounded to the nearest hundredth of a year, for each
subsequent birth year
b. the life expectancy, to the nearest tenth of a year, of a female born in 2050.
2. Use the line graph in Figure 1.8 (p. 22) to solve this exercise.

Extended Figure Description for Objective 1.2.2 Guided Example Figure 2

a. Find an estimate for the percentage of college students who smoked cigarettes in 2010.
 b. In which four-year period did the percentage of college students who smoked cigarettes decrease
at the greatest rate?
c. In which year did 30% of college students smoke cigarettes?
1.
a. approximately 0.15 year for each subsequent birth year
b. approximately 81.6 years
2.
a. In 2010, approximately 18% of college students smoked cigarettes.
b. The greatest rate of decrease in the percentage of college students who smoked cigarettes can be
found by identifying the portion of the graph with the steepest downward slope. This occurs
between 2002 and 2006.
c. The year when 30% smoked cigarettes was 1998.
Practice (Exercise 45 & 49, p.28)
Use the graph below to solve this exercise. An online test of English spelling lookedat how well people spelled
difficult words. The bar graph shows how many people per 100 spelled each word correctly.

Extended Figure Description for Objective 1.2.2

Practice Figure 1
3. Estimate the number of people per 100 who spelled weird correctly.
4. In a group consisting of 8729 randomly selected people, estimate how many more people can correctly
spell weird than inoculate.
With aging, body fat increases and musclemass declines. The line graphs show the percent body fat in adult
females and males as they age from 25 to 75 years. Use the graph above Exercise 5 to solve these exercises.
Extended Figure Description for Objective 1.2.2 Practice Figure 2
5. Find an estimate for the percent body fat in 45-year-old women.
6. At what age does the percent body fat in women reach a maximum? What is the percent body fat for that
age?
7. At what age do women have 34% body fat?
Objective 1.2.3 – Develop mathematical models that estimate relationships between variables.
Summary
A formula is a statement of equality that uses letters to express a relationship between two or more variables.
The process of finding formulas to describe real-world phenomena is called mathematical modeling. Such
formulas, together with the meaning assigned to the variables, are called mathematical models. Sometimes a
mathematical model gives an estimate that is not a good approximation or is extended to include values of the
variable that do not make sense. In these cases, we say that model breakdown has occurred.
Guided Example
The bar graph in Figure 1.10 (p. 25) shows the average cost of tuition and fees for private four-year colleges,
adjusted for inflation.

Extended Figure Description for Objective 1.2.3 Guided Example Figure 1

a. Estimate the yearly increase in tuition and fees. Round to the nearest dollar.
b. Write a mathematical model that estimates the average cost of tuition and fees, T, at private four-year
colleges for the school year ending x years after 2000.
c. Use the mathematical model from part (b) to project the average cost of tuition and fees at private four-
year colleges for the school year ending in 2030.
a. The yearly increase in tuition and fees can be approximated by dividing the change in tuition and fees by
the change in time from 2000 to 2020.
$32,769−$14,6162020−2000=$1815320≈$908
b.

c. 2030 is 30 years after 2000. Thus,

Practice (Exercise 51 p. 29)
Use the graph below (p. 29) to solve the following problem.

Extended Figure Description for Objective 1.2.3 Practice Figure 1

8. Estimate the yearly increase in the average atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide. Express the
answer in parts per million, rounded to the nearest hundredth.
9. Write a mathematical model that estimates the average atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, C,
in parts per million, x years after 1950.
10. If the trend shown by the data continues, use your mathematical model from part (b) to project the
average atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide in 2050.

Section 5.6 Exponents and Scientific Notation

Objective 5.6.1 – Use properties of exponents.
Summary
Properties of exponents include:

1. Product rule: bm⋅bn=bm+n

2. Zero exponent rule: b0=1, b≠0

3. Power rule: (bm)n=bm⋅n

4. Negative exponent rule: b−m=1bm, b≠0
5. Quotient rule: bmbn=bm−n, b≠0
Guided Example
Use properties of exponents to simplify each expression.

a. 32⋅34
b. (43)3
c. 26 /22
d. −140
e. 9-2

a. 32⋅34=32+4=36=729

b. (43)3=43⋅3=49=262,144
c. 26 /22=26−2=24=16
d. −140=−(140)=−1
e. 9−2=192=181
Practice (Exercises 1, 5, 9, 13, & 19, p. 324)
Use properties of exponents to simplify each expression.

1. 22⋅22
2. (22)3
3. 47 / 45
4. 30
5. 2-2

Objective 5.6.2 – Convert from scientific notation to decimal notation.

Summary
A positive number is written in scientific notation when it is expressed in the form a×10n, where a is a number
greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10 and n is an integer.
Converting from Scientific to Decimal Notation: If n is positive, move the decimal point in a to the
right n places. If n is negative, move the decimal point to the left |n| places.
Guided Example
Write each number in decimal notation:
a. 7.4×109
b. 3.017×10−6
a. 7.4×109=7,400,000,000
b. 3.017×10−6=0.000003017
Practice (Exercises 47 & 55, p. 324)
Express each number in decimal notation.
6. 8×107
7. 7.86×10−4

Objective 5.6.3 – Convert from decimal notation to scientific notation.

Summary
Converting from Decimal to Scientific Notation: Move the decimal point in the given number to obtain a,
where 1≤a<10. The number of places the decimal moves gives the absolute value of n in a×10n, n is positive if
the number is greater than 10 and negative if the number is less than 1.
Guided Example
Write each number in scientific notation:
a. 7,410,000,000
b. 0.000000092
a. 7,410,000,000=7.41×109
b. 0.000000092=9.2×10−8
Practice (Exercises 65 & 71, p. 324)
Express each number in scientific notation.
8. 220,000,000
9. 0.00000293

Objective 5.6.4 – Perform computations using scientific notation.

Summary
Multiplication and division involving very large or very small numbers can be performed by first converting
each number to scientific notation. The product and quotient rules for exponents are used to multiply and divide
numbers in scientific notation. If a number is written in scientific notation, a×10n, the digits in a are called
significant digits. If rounding is necessary, round the scientific notation answer to the least number of significant
digits found in any of the given numbers.
Guided Example
Perform the indicted operation and express the answer in decimal notation.
a. (1.3×107)(4×10−2).
b. 6.9×10−83×10−2
a.

b.

Practice (Exercises 81 & 85, p. 324)

Perform the indicted operation and express the answer in decimal notation.
10. (2×109)(3×10-5)
11. 12×1064×102

Objective 5.6.5 – Solve applied problems using scientific notation.

Summary
The product and quotient rules for exponents are used to multiply and divide numbers in scientific notation. If a
number is written in scientific notation, a×10n, the digits in a are called significant digits. If rounding is
necessary, round the scientific notation answer to the least number of significant digits found in any of the given
numbers.
Guided Example
a. In 2015, there were 680,000 police officers in the United States with yearly wages totaling $4.08×1010.
If these wages were evenly divided among all police officers, find the mean, or average, salary of a U.S.
police officer. (Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics)
b. At the end of 2010, the national debt was $13.5 trillion. At that time, the U.S. population was
approximately 309 million. Write 13.5 trillion and 309 million in scientific notation. Then determine
how much each person would have had to pay if the national debt in 2010 had been evenly divided
among every individual in the 2010 population. Round to three significant digits. Compare this amount
to the $84,900 per person in 2021 from Example 9. How much did each individual’s share of the
national debt increase between 2010 and 2021?
a.

b. 1.35×1013, 3.09×108, 1.35×10133.09×108≈0.437×105=4.37×104=$43,700

$84,900−$43,700=$41,200
Practice (Exercises 111 & 113, p. 325)
The graph shows the cost, in billions of dollars, and the enrollment, in millions of people, for various federal
social programs for a recent year. Use the numbers shown to solve Exercises 12 and 13.

Extended Figure Description for Objective 5.6.5 Practice

Figure 1
12.
 a. Express the federal cost for Social Security in decimal notation.
b. Express the enrollment in Social Security in scientific notation.
c. Use your answers from parts (a) and (b) to determine the average yearly per person benefit for
Social Security. Round to the nearest dollar and express the answer in scientific notation and in
decimal notation.
d. Use your decimal answer from part (c) to determine the average monthly per person benefit,
expressed in decimal notation, for Social Security.
13. Medicaid provides health insurance for the poor. Medicare provides health insurance for people 65 and
older, as well as younger people who are disabled. Which program provides the greater yearly per
person benefit? By how much, rounded to the nearest dollar?

Objective 7.3.2 – Solve linear systems by graphing.

 Summary
Linear systems with one solution can be solved by graphing. The coordinates of the point of intersection of
the lines are the system’s solution.
Guided Example
Solve by graphing:

Check coordinates of intersection (−3,4).:

The solution set is {(−3,4)}.

Practice (Exercises 7 & 9, p. 451)
Solve the system by graphing. Check the coordinates of the intersection point in both equations.
3.

4.

Section 7.6 Modeling Data: Exponential, Logarithmic, and Quadratic Functions

Objective 7.6.1 – Graph exponential functions.
Summary
Data presented in a visual form as a set of points are called a scatter plot. The line that best fits the data
points in a scatter plot is called a regression line.
The exponential function with base b is defined by y=bx or f(x)=bx, where b is a positive constant other
than 1 (b>0 and b≠1) and x is any real number.
All exponential functions of the form y=bx where b>1, have the shape of the graph in Figure 7.43 on page
472, making this a function a good model for data points in a scatter plot that are increasing more and more
rapidly.

Extended Figure Description for Objective 7.6.1 Summary Figure 1

Guided Examples
Graph: f(x)=3x

Extended Figure Description for Objective 7.6.1 Guided Examples Figure 1

Practice (Exercises 1 & 3, p. 484)
Use a table of coordinates to graph each exponential function. Begin by selecting −2,−1,0,1, and 2 for x.
1. f(x)=4x
2. f(x)=2x+1
Objective 7.6.2 – Use exponential models.
Summary
The irrational number, e, e≈2.72 is called the natural base and it appears in many applied exponential
functions. The function f(x)=ex is called the natural exponential function.
Logarithmic functions are defined as: For x>0 and b>0,b≠1, y=logb x is equivalent to by=x.
Th function f(x)=logb x is the logarithmic function with base b.
Guided Example
Medical research indicates that the risk of having a car accident increases exponentially as the concentration
of alcohol in the blood increases. The risk is modeled by R=6e12.77x, where x is the blood-alcohol
concentration and R, given as a percent, is the risk of having a car accident. In every state, it is illegal to
drive with a blood-alcohol concentration of 0.08 or greater.
In many states, it is illegal for drivers under 21 years old to drive with a blood-alcohol concentration of 0.01
or greater. What is the risk of a car accident with a blood-alcohol concentration of 0.01? Round to one
decimal place.

The risk of a car accident with a blood alcohol concentration of 0.01 is 6.8%.
Practice (Exercise 33b, p. 485)
Use a calculator with an ex key to solve this exercise.
The bar graph shows the average cost of room and board at four-year public and private U.S. colleges for
four selected years from 2011 through 2017.

In which f(x) and g(x) represent the average cost of room and board at public four-year colleges in the
school year ending x years after 2010. Use these functions to solve the exercise. Where necessary, round
answers to the nearest whole dollar.
3. According to the exponential model, what was the average cost of room and board at public four-year
colleges for the school year ending in 2017?
Objective 7.6.3 – Graph logarithmic functions.
Summary
All logarithmic functions of the form y=logxb, where b>1, have the shape of the graph in Figure 7.49 on
page 477, making this function a good model for data points in a scatter plot that are increasing, but whose
rate of increase is slowing down.

Extended Figure Description for Objective 7.6.3 Summary Figure 1

Guided Example
Rewrite y=log3x in exponential form. Then use the exponential form of the equation to obtain the function’s
graph. Select integers from −2 to 2, inclusive, for y.
Rewrite y=log3x as x=3y.

y x=3y. x (x,y)

−2 x=3−2 19 (19,−2)

−1 x=3−1 13 (13,−1)

0 x=30 1 (1,0)

1 x=31 3 (3,1)

2 x=32 9 (9,2)
Extended Figure Description for Objective 7.6.3 Guided Example Figure 1
Practice (Exercise 7, p.484)
4. y=log4x
Rewrite the equation in exponential form.
Use a table of coordinates and the exponential form from part (a) to graph the logarithmic function. Begin
by selecting −2,−1,0,1, and 2 for y.
Objective 7.6.4 – Use logarithmic models.
Summary
When the data in the scatter plot increase rapidly at first and then begin to level off a bit, the shape suggests
that a logarithmic function is a good choice for a model.
Guided Example
Use the model obtained in Example 5(a)
f(x)=−11.6+13.4lnx
to find the temperature increase, to the nearest degree, after x=30 minutes. How well does the function
model the actual increase shown in Figure 7.51(a) on page 477?

The function models the actual data extremely well.

Extended Figure Description for Objective 7.6.4

Guided Example Figure 1
Practice (Exercise 37a, p. 486)
5. The percentage of adult height attained by a girl who is x years old can be modeled by
f(x)=62+35log(x−4)
where x represents the girl’s age (from 5 to 15) and f(x) represents the percentage of her adult height.
According to the model, what percentage of her adult height has a girl attained at age 13? Use a calculator
with a LOG key and round to the nearest tenth of a percent.
Objective 7.6.5 – Graph quadratic functions.
Summary
A scatter plot with a shape that indicates the data are first decreasing and then increasing, has behavior that
can be modeled by a quadratic function. A quadratic function is any function of the form y=ax2+bx+c,
where a, b, and c are real numbers with a≠0.
The graph of a quadratic function is called a parabola.
The vertex, or turning point, is the low point (minimum point) when the graph opens upward and the high
point (maximum point) when the graph opens downward. The x-coordinate of a parabola’s vertex
is x=−b2a.
The y-coordinate is found by substituting the x-coordinate into the parabola’s equation.
The six steps for graphing a parabola are as follows:
1. Determine whether the parabola opens upward or downward. If a >0, it opens upward. If a <0, it opens
downward.
2. Determine the vertex of the parabola. The x-coordinate is −b2a. The y-coordinate is found by
substituting the x-coordinate into the parabola’s equation and evaluating.
3. Find any x-intercepts by replacing y or f(x) with 0. Solve the resulting quadratic equation for x.
4. Find the y-intercept by replacing x with 0. Because f(0)=c (the constant term in the function’s equation),
the y-intercept is c and the parabola passes through (0, c).
5. Plot the intercepts and the vertex.
6. Connect these points with a smooth curve.
Guided Example
Graph the quadratic function:
y=x2+6x+5
 Step 1. Since a>0, the parabola opens upward (a=1).
 Step 2. Find the vertex given a=1 and b=6.
x-coordinate of vertex =−b2a=−62(1)=−62=−3
y-coordinate of vertex =(−3)2+6(−3)+5=9−18+5=−4
Thus, the vertex is the point (−3,−4).
 Step 3. Replace y with 0 and solve the equation for x by factoring.
Thus the x-intercepts are −5 and −1,, which are located at the points (−5,0) and (−1,0).
 Step 4. Replace x with 0 and solve the equation for y.

Thus the y-intercept is 5, which is located at the point (0, 5).

 Steps 5 and 6. Plot the intercepts and the vertex. Connect these points with a smooth curve.

Extended Figure Description for Objective 7.6.5 Guided Example Figure 1

Practice (Exercises 9 & 13, p.484)
Use a) – d) to graph the quadratic equation.
a. Determine if the parabola whose equation is given opens upward or downward.
b. Find the vertex.
c. Find the x-intercepts.
d. Find the y-intercept.
6. y=x2+8x+7
7. y=−x2+4x−3
Objective 7.6.6 – Use quadratic models.
Summary
All quadratic functions have the shape of one of the graphs in Figure 7.53 on page 476, making this
function a good model for data points in a scatter plot that are decreasing and then increasing, or vice versa.

Extended
Figure Description for Objective 7.6.6 Summary Figure 1
Guided Example
Use the model obtained in Example 7(a) (p. 482)
f(x)=−0.01x2+1.18x+2
(where x is a football’s horizontal distance in feet from the defensive player) to answer this question:
If the defensive player had been 8 feet from the kicker’s point of impact, how far would he have needed to
reach to block the punt? Does this seem realistic? Identify the solution as a point on the graph in Figure
7.59 (p. 482).

Extended Figure Description for Objective 7.6.6

Guided Example Figure 1
The defensive player would have needed to reach 10.8 feet. It would be unlikely any player could reach that
far. This would be represented on the graph by the point (8,10.8).

Practice (Exercise 39c, p. 486)

8. A ball is thrown upward and outward from a height of 6 feet. The table shows the four measurements
indicating the ball’s height at various horizontal distances from where it was thrown. The graphing
calculator screen displays a quadratic function that models the ball’s height, y, in feet, in terms of its
horizontal distance, x, in feet.

The model can be expressed as

f(x)=−0.8x2+2.4x+6
Use this model to determine the x coordinate of the quadratic function’s vertex. Then complete this
statement: The maximum height of the ball occurs feet from where it was thrown and the
maximum height is feet.