Blood resistance/viscosity is influenced by plasma proteins

and other formed elements.

- It is a fluid connective tissue which consists
of plasma, cells, and cells fragments Plasma
- Plasma is the liquid extracellular matrix
- It consists mainly of water (92%)
- Cell Fragments and cells include:
- Contains plasma proteins including
erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes
globulins, albumin, fibrinogen (produced by
(white blood cells), thrombocytes (platelets)
the liver)
The Heart creates a pressure gradient that helps - Other solutes include nutrients , gases,
move blood through the body. wastes, regulatory substances, electrolytes.
This also include ions, glucose, lipids,
Functions of the Blood
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and amino acids
- Transportations transports nutrients,
Plasma Proteins
wastes, and other substances as it moves
through the body  Approximately 7% of plasma
- Defense the white blood cells provide volume
protection against infection while the platelet  Albumins are the most abundant
protects the body from blood loss plasma proteins made by the liver,
- Maintenance of Homeostasis Aids in the major regulator of blood osmotic
temperature and pH regulation and fluid pressure
balance  Globulin are the second most
Whole blood- components of whole blood can be se abundant plasma proteins which
parated by a centrifuge functions as transport proteins and
as antibodies. Many are produced
by liver, antibodies are produced by
leukocytes
 Fibrinogen is the least abundant
plasma protein which is involved in
blood clotting produced by liver.

Erythrocytes

- Is the most common formed element that

transport gases in blood. It is biconcave disc
in shape and increases surface area for gas
exchange
- It contains few organelles and no nucleus. It
How does the blood flow? contains hemoglobin to transport gases
- It lives up to 120 days and is broken down
Pressure gradient allows flow of blood throughout the and recycled in the liver and spleen
body. Blood moves from areas of higher pressure to  Globin are recycled into amino
areas of lower pressure (called bulk flow). Blood acids
thickness (viscosity) causes resistance to flow (the  Iron are stored and reused by the
higher the viscosity the higher the resistance). This body
  Non-iron portion of heme is toxic Anemia is a condition of insufficient RBC
Which is converted to biliverdin and numbers or insufficiency to carry oxygen
then bilirubin which is incorporated
 Sickle cell anemia- defective
into bile by liver. These then is
hemoglobin causing changes in the
eliminated from the body in the form
shape of the RBC
of urine and feces
 Iron Deficiency Anemia- due to the
Hemoglobin lack of iron
 Pernicious Anemia-due to
- Made of proteins and iron; four folded globin
inadequacy of Vitamin B12
proteins contain FOUR HEME GROUPS
- Each heme groups contains an iron ion  Megaloblastic Anemia- due to lack
which can bind one molecule of oxygen. It of Vitamin B12 and/or folate
binds oxygen in oxygen-rich environments  Aplastic Anemia- due to deficiency
and release oxygen in oxygen-poor in number of RBC stem cells
environments Menstruation in women and other forms of
PULSE OXIMETRY chronic bleeding may also cause anemia

- Saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen Polycythemias is the condition that leads to

detected by pulse oximeter overproduction of RBCs; this condition increases
- Oxygenated blood carries higher amounts of the viscosity of the blood
oxygen (95-100%) Leukocytes
- Deoxygenated blood carries less oxygen
(70-80%) - These are also known as white blood cells
which we know helps the body fight against
Erythropoiesis infection. It eliminates body cells with
- Process which results to the production of mutated DNA, and cleans up the debris
red blood cells. This process begins in the - Produced through the process of
bone marrow. hematopoiesis in red bone marrow; It is
- Erythropoietin (EPO) is a hormone that is less in number compared to RBCs but is
secreted as a response to hypoxemia (low larger than RBCs. All types of leukocytes
blood exygensaturation); EPO stimulates has nucleus and organelles; It can last hours
erythropoiesis to begin/proceed. to years
- New red blood cells are formed as a result of - It leaves the blood vessels via diapedesis
this process only if there are enough iron Types of Leukocytes
and Vitamin B12
- Granular Leukocytes have visible granules
Hematocrit  Neutrophils – is the most common
- This is the percentage of RBCs in a while leukocyte (40-60%); it has faint
sample of blood purple granules, its nucleus has two
- The homeostatic range is about 36%-50% to five lobes; Phagocytic cells;
but would still vary depending on muscle increased during bacterial infections
mass, gender, and fitness levels  Basophils it is the least common
leukocyte (less than 1% of
leukocyte count) it has dark blue
 granules and with Nucleus Thrombopoietin—promotes development of
containing two lobes; its granules megakaryocytes and platelets
releases histamine; increased
Cytokines—chemical signals released from a variety
during allergic reactions
of tissues; Stimulate production of various leukocytes
 Eosinophils (2-4%) has bright pink
as necessary
to red granules and with Nucleus
containing two to three lobes; Hemostasis- is the process by which the body plugs
increased during allergic reactions a ruptured blood vessel to minimize blood loss in
or parasitic infections which platelets play a significant role; it prevents
- Agranular Leukocytes have non-visible blood loss and allows for vessel repair
granules
Steps include:
 Lymphocytes is the second most
common lymphocyte; it has large 1. Vascular Spasm- blood vessel walls
nucleus with a thin rim of contracts limiting blood flow to area and
cytoplasm; It has three groups blood loss; this allows hemostasis to occur
which are B lymphocytes, T 2. Formation of platelet plug- platelets adhere
lymphocytes, Natural Killer Cells to exposed collagen fibers in vessel wall
(NK cells); increased during which maintain vessel contraction and
bacterial infections recruits more platelets; Von Willlebrand
 Monocytes is large, with a Factor helps in stabilizing the plug formed
horseshoe-shaped nucleus; they and binds it to collagen
mature into macrophages; 3. Coagulation (blood clotting)
increased during viral or fungal - Failure to continue or follow these steps
infections leads to hemorrhage (massive blood loss)

Platelets Two Pathways of Coagulation

- This is involved in blood clotting and vessel Extrinsic Pathway is triggered by trauma that breaks
repair blood vessel wall
- These are fragments of a megakaryocyte
Intrinsic Pathway is triggered by internal damage to
and are not cells
wall
- These contain growth factors and chemicals
involved in blood clotting and also help Common Pathway
promote repair of blood vessels and tissue
Clotting Factors Involved in Coagulation
healing

Hematopoietic Growth Factors

Differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells is driven by

chemical growth factors, some of which are also
hormones

Erythropoietin (EPO)—promotes erythrocyte

production called erythropoiesis
Extrinsic Pathway Bothe extrinsic and Intrinsic pathways lead to the
common pathway after Factor X is activated

- Prothrombinase converts Factor II

(prothrombin) into thrombin
- Thrombin converts Factor I (fibrinogen) into
fibrin which stabilizes the clot

Erythrocytes Antigens

Blood types are determined based on the antigen

present on the surface of the RBCs

Three commonly used antigen:

 Antigen A
 Antigen B
 Antigen D (Rh Factor) – may be
negative or positive blood type

Antibodies are proteins that are made by the

immune system; it is designed to bind to foreign
antigens the body doesn’t recognize

Transfusion Reactions

This occurs when incompatible blood types are mixed

Intrinsic Pathway and this is where cells clump together

Common Pathway With these reactions, hemolysis of red blood cells

can overload kidneys that may lead to kidney failure.

Rhesus Antigen

- Rh antigen present (positive)

- Rh antigen absent (negative)

Exposure to the other causes creation of antibodies

Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn

May occur when a Rh- mother is pregnant with a Rh+

fetus