Molecular Biology – Chemistry of Life
Topic 1: Elements of Life
Living organisms contain a vast range of chemical substances, the majority of which are carbon-containing
compounds such as glucose, fats and proteins. These are collectively known as organic compounds.
Carbon is an element that is a component of all biological molecules.
Draw a carbon atom showing the subatomic particles.
Identify the number protons, electron and neutrons in a carbon.
Protons- _______ Electrons-_______ Neutrons_______
Carbon has the atomic number 6, which means that it has 4 electrons in its outer shell. These can form four covalent
with other carbon atoms or atoms of other elements. This allows a diversity of stable carbon compounds to
exist. Many important macromolecules are composed of carbon.
Name the 4 main biological molecules:
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What are the top 6 elements living things are made of?
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Can you explain what monomers and polymers are, and provide examples of each?
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Topic 2: Water
Water molecule is made up of the following atoms:
• Oxygen - 1
• Hydrogen – 2
Because of the difference in protons, oxygen attracts hydrogen’s electrons closer towards it. This creates partially
positive and negative sides of the molecule. This is known as being polar.
Draw a diagram of a water molecule to show its polarity. Include the charges, use delta sign δ.
When water molecules are near each other, hydrogen bonds form between them. These hydrogen bonds result
from attraction between the slightly-positive H’s and slightly-negative O’s.
Draw 4 water molecules below, labeling the charge of each atom and show the hydrogen bonds that connect each of
the water molecule.
Hydrophilic vs. Hydrophobic Substances
Biological compounds can be classified as being hydrophilic or hydrophobic, depending on how they interact with
water molecules. Hydrophilic means 'water-loving', and hydrophobic means 'afraid of water'.
• Hydrophilic substances are polar and so are attracted to other polar or charged compounds and form
hydrogen bonds with them. This allows them to be attracted or dissolve in water. (Sugars and most salts).
• Hydrophobic substances are not polar and so do NOT form H-bonds with water. They are insoluble. (Fats
and oils.
Properties of water molecule:
Cohesion - This is the tendency of water molecules to stick to each other due to the hydrogen bonding between them.
This means the molecules naturally ‘stick’ together. Although hydrogen bonds are weak bonds, the presence of a large
number of hydrogen bonds in water gives the cohesive forces great strength.
Explain the importance of cohesion to plants.
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What is the difference between cohesion and adhesion?
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Thermal properties
• Water has high specific heat capacity
The high specific heat capacity of water means that the temperature in aquatic ecosystems, for example ponds, lakes and
seas, does not change rapidly, making these ecosystems stable. Water’s high specific heat allows it to be a stable
environment for marine organisms.
• Water has a high latent heat of vaporization, which is the energy required for it to evaporate.
Water’s high latent heat of vaporization allows organisms to use it as a coolant. When body temperature increases, sweat
builds on the skin. The water molecules absorb heat from the skin until it evaporates.
This energy is carried away and the body is cooled.
Practice question:
What is specific heat capacity?
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Why does water have a high specific heat capacity?
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How does the high latent heat of vaporization of water benefit living organisms?
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What role does water's high specific heat play in aquatic ecosystems?
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Give one application of water's high latent heat of vaporization.
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How does water's high specific heat capacity affect aquatic life?
a. It causes rapid temperature changes
b. It allows for stable habitats
c. It increases oxygen levels
How does the high specific heat capacity of water benefit Earth's climate?
a. It causes extreme weather
b. It cools the atmosphere
c. It prevents temperature fluctuations
What does high specific heat capacity of water allow it to do?
a. Heat up quickly
b. Maintain a stable temperature
c. Evaporate rapidly
Solvent
Water is one of the best-known solvents, considered the universal solvent. Because water is polar, it has the ability
to surround and dissolve other ionic or polar molecules. This makes water an effective solvent.
As a result, organisms can use water for transport of substance in the blood and in plants. Water dissolves many
substances that are later carried around the body in the blood plasma. These are water soluble substances such as
glucose, amino acids and sodium chloride.
How does the polar nature of water contribute to its effectiveness as a solvent?
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Give an example of a biological process that relies on water's solvent properties.
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Topic 3: Carbohydrates
§ Main function is to store energy.
§ Another function – provide structural support - structure such as the cellulose cell
wall in plants.
§ Compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of one oxygen and
two hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom—(CH2O)n
§ Example: Glucose C6H12O6
Carbohydrates can be classified into three classes depending on their complexity:
Complete the table by writing the types of carbohydrate and name an example.
Two monosaccharides joined together form a disaccharide.
Name and describe the process shown above:
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Longer carbohydrate molecules are called polysaccharides.
Describe the process of breaking down the polysaccharide to monosaccharides:
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State the specific uses of energy provided by carbohydrates in living organism:
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Classify the following carbohydrate as monosaccharide, disaccharide or polysaccharide:
• Sucrose • Fructose
• Starch • Lactose
• Glycogen • Galactose
• Maltose • Cellulose
• Glucose
Topic 4: Lipids / Fats
§ Molecules made mostly of carbon and hydrogen and oxygen. Some contains phosphorus.
§ Primary function is to store energy.
Name other functions of lipids:
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Saturated and Unsaturated fatty acids:
Nutritionists would advise their patients that, for a healthy body it is essential to include both saturated and
unsaturated fats in our diet. Which type of fat is healthier?
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§ Lipids that are saturated fats – have only single bonds between the carbon atoms.
§ Lipids that are unsaturated - have at least one double bond between carbon atoms.
Saturated fats tend to stay solid and can cause fatty deposits in blood vessels. Saturated fats would clog arteries that
might increase the risk of cardiac disease. By contrast, unsaturated fats stay liquid at room temperature and are less likely
to clog your arteries.
In addition, most unsaturated fats are derived from plant sources (like olive, avocado, and nuts), while most saturated fats
come from animal sources (like red meat, poultry, and dairy).
Other examples of lipids in living organisms:
1. Phospholipid - molecule with two fatty acids and a phosphate group. Present in the cell membrane of the cell.
2. Steroids – group of lipids that includes hormones such as testosterone, progesterone and estrogen which play an
important role in regulating mammalian reproduction.
3. Waxes - covers the feathers of some aquatic birds and the leaf surfaces of some plants, where its hydrophobic
properties prevent water from sticking to, or soaking into the surface. This is why water beads up on the leaves of
many plants, and why birds don’t get soaked through when it rains.
Body Mass Index (BMI) - is a value derived from the mass and height of a person.
It is commonly used as a screening tool to identify potential weight problems in sedentary adults such as obesity.
Formula:
Normal BMI – 18.5-24.9
BMI Range Classification
What is the BMI of a person who weighs 70 kg and is 1.75 m tall?
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Nomograms
An alternative way of calculating body mass index is by using an alignment chart (nomogram)
What are lipids and what role do they play in the body?
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What are the main types of lipids found in living organisms?
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How do saturated and unsaturated fats differ?
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What is the significance of phospholipids in cell membranes?
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Topic 5: Proteins
§ Made up of monomer - amino acids
§ Amino acids are small compounds that are made of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and sometimes
sulfur.
§ There are 20 different amino acids which are universal to all living organisms
Draw a generalized structure of amino acid.
Amino acids are joined together on the ribosome to form long chains called polypeptides, which make up proteins.
Amino acids can be covalently joined together in a dehydration synthesis reaction to form a dipeptide and water as
shown.
Write the word equation for the dehydration synthesis reaction:
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Hydrolysis of polypeptide breaks down dipeptide into amino acids using water. Illustrate the hydrolysis of dipeptide
below.
Write the word equation for the hydrolysis reaction:
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What are the key differences between amino acids, dipeptides, polypeptides, and proteins in terms of
structure?
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Proteins plays a wide array of roles in a cell or organism.
Describe the following functions of protein in living organism. Give a specific example for each function of the protein.
1. Enzyme/Catalyst
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2. Transport
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3. Hormone
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4. Structure
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5. Defense against infectious disease
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Denaturation - a structural change in a protein that results in the loss of its biological properties. The shape of protein
is specific to its function, a small change may alter the protein activity.
Denaturation of proteins can usually be caused by two key conditions – temperature and pH.
Explain how temperature and pH may lead to protein denaturation.
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Investigation: Food test
The Benedict's test for glucose
• Add Benedict's solution into sample solution in test tube
• Heat at 60 - 70 °C in water bath for 5 minutes
• Take test tube out of water bath and observe the color
• A positive test will show a color change from blue to green/yellow/orange or brick red
Test for starch using iodine
We can use iodine to test for the presence or absence of starch in a food sample.
• Add drops of iodine solution to the food sample
• A positive test will show a color change from orange-brown to blue-black
Test for protein
• Add drops of Biuret solution to the food sample
• A positive test will show a color change from blue to violet / purple
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Test for lipids
• Food sample is mixed with ethanol and shaken
• The ethanol is added to an equal volume of cold water
• A positive test will show a cloudy emulsion forming
What is Benedict’s test and what is it used for? (2)
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With which test can starch be detected, and what color would indicate their presence? (2)
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What does the Biuret test identify and how is it carried out? (3)
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What happens in a lipid emulsion test if lipids are present in the sample? (1)
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A sample of food was placed in a clear and colorless liquid and shaken. When the liquid was pour into cold water, it
turned the water milky. Which food is most likely to produce this result?
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A baked bean was placed in a reagent to detect the presence of sugar. The solution did not change color. Select the
correct explanation for this observation.
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Lemonade was placed into a reagent which turned brick red after heating. What is the name of the reagent used and
what color was the reagent before heating?
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