Chapter 1.

Theories and practice

1.1.1. Definition

Phonetics: is the linguistic science that studies speech sounds: the way in which they are produced
(uttered, articulated), the way in which they are perceived, their physical characteristics, etc.

example: "Ship" vs. "Sheep": The difference between [ʃ] and [ʒ] sounds distinguishes these words. The
initial consonant sound [ʃ] in "ship" contrasts with the initial consonant sound [ʒ] in "sheep."

1.1.2. Areas of phonetics

Phonetics also covers the reception aspect of speech. The sound made by human when human talk is
studied through different branches of Phonetics as follows:

a. Articulatory phonetics: is the study of how speech sounds are produced using the articulators - the
parts of the body involved in producing speech sounds.

b. Acoustic phonetics, which is also considered a branch of physics, involves the study of the speech
signals (the sound waves produced when a speaker speaks). In other words, it deals with the
transmission of speech sounds through the air.

c. Auditory phonetics, which is also considered a branch of physiology, is the study of how speech signal
is sensed in the auditory canal and interpreted by the relevant parts of the brain. In other words, it deals
with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener.

1.2. Introduction to phonology

*Phonology is the study or description of the distinctive sound units (phonemes) of a language and their
relationship to one another. It involves studying a language d a language to determine its distinctive
sounds and to establish a set of rules that describe the set. changes that take place in these sounds
when they occur in different relationships with other sounds. The subject of phonology includes the
following areas:

a. Study of the phonemic system.

b. Phoneme sequences and syllable structure.

c. Suprasegmental phonology (stress, intonation).

example: "Seat" vs. "Sit": The vowel sounds [i:] in "seat" and [ɪ] in "sit" create a phonemic
distinction. The alteration in the vowel sound changes the meaning between these two wor ds.

1.3. The speech organs/ articulators Muscles in the chest aid in breathing, while those in the larynx
modify the airflow. The airflow passes through the vocal tract, ending at the mouth and nostrils
where it's released. The vocal tract, with its various muscles, shapes speech sounds. Understa nding
these parts—articulators—forms the basis of articulatory phonetics, essential for comprehending the
production of speech sounds.
seven primary speech articulators and notes three additional components relevant to speech
production. It acknowledges the larynx's complexity as an articulator, emphasizes the jaw's mobility
during speech, and highlights the importance of the nose and nasal cavity in forming specific sounds,
notably nasal consonants like [m] and [n]. Although not traditional articulators, they play a crucial
role in speech. The tongue is highlighted as a versatile and crucial articulator, capable of diverse
movements and shapes despite lacking distinct divisions within its structure

1.4. How are speech sounds produced? When we are making sounds, the air from the lungs comes up
through the wind. pipe and arrives first at the larynx. Then it goes through the vocal cords into the
pharynx and up the pharynx to the uvula. At this point, it may go in either way. It may go into the oral
cavity (if the soft palate is raised) and go out of the mouth. Or it may go into the nasal tract (if the soft
palate is lowered) and get out through the nostrils.
 1.4.1. How are oral sounds produced? In the process of making sounds, at the uvula if the soft
palate is raised, blocking off the nasal tract, the airstream can only go into the oral tract and go
out of the mouth, then we have oral sounds.
Example: /g/, /s/, /0/
 1.4.2. How are nasal sounds produced? In the process of making sounds, if the air-stream is
blocked somewhere in the oral cavity but the soft palate is lowered so that the air-stream can
get into the nasal tract and get out through the nostrils, then we have nasal sounds.
Example: /m/, /n/, /r/
 1.4.3. How are consonant sounds produced? When we are making sounds, if two articulators
come together, obstructing the airstream and the airstream cannot get out freely, we have
consonant sounds
Example: /kJ, /f/, /b/, /m/
 1.4.4. How are vowel sounds produced? When we are making sounds, if there is no obstruction
to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips and the air can get out freely, then we
have vowel sounds.
Example: /01, /3:/, /a/, /1/
 1.4.5. How are voiced sounds produced? When we are producing sounds, the air-stream goes
through the vocal cords. If the vocal cords come together, obstructing the air-stream, the air-
stream cannot get out through them freely and it makes them vibrate, then we have voiced
sounds.
Example: /d/, /v/, /m/
 1.4.6. How are voiceless sounds produced? When we are making sounds, the air-stream goes
through the vocal cords. If the vocal cords come apart, they are open. The ait-stream can go out
through them freely and it does not make them vibrate, then we have voiceless sounds.
Example: /s/, It/, /k/