Physics Reference Guide

Mechanics and Electricity & Magnetism

MECHANICS

1. Kinematics

Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration

 Position: r⃗(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ + z(t)k̂

 Displacement: Δr⃗ = r⃗₂ - r⃗₁

 Average Velocity: v⃗ₐᵥₑ = Δr⃗/Δt

 Instantaneous Velocity: v⃗ = dr⃗/dt = lim(Δt→0) Δr⃗/Δt

 Average Acceleration: a⃗ₐᵥₑ = Δv⃗/Δt

 Instantaneous Acceleration: a⃗ = dv⃗/dt = d²r⃗/dt²

Uniform Motion

 Position: x(t) = x₀ + vt

 Velocity: v = constant

Uniformly Accelerated Motion

 Velocity: v(t) = v₀ + at

 Position: x(t) = x₀ + v₀t + ½at²

 Velocity-displacement: v² = v₀² + 2a(x - x₀)

Circular Motion

 Angular Velocity: ω = θ/t = 2π/T = 2πf

 Linear Velocity: v = ωr

 Period: T = 2π/ω

 Frequency: f = 1/T = ω/2π

 Centripetal Acceleration: aₒ = v²/r = ω²r

 Centripetal Force: Fₒ = mv²/r = mω²r

2. Dynamics

Newton's Laws

 First Law: An object at rest stays at rest, an object in motion stays in motion at constant
velocity, unless acted upon by a net external force

 Second Law: F⃗ = ma⃗ = dp⃗/dt

 Third Law: F⃗₁₂ = -F⃗₂₁ (action-reaction pairs)

Forces

Gravitational Force

 F = mg (near Earth's surface)

 F = Gm₁m₂/r² (universal gravitation)

Elastic Force (Hooke's Law)

 F = -kx

 k = spring constant

 x = displacement from equilibrium

Friction Forces

 Static Friction: fₛ ≤ μₛN

 Kinetic Friction: fₖ = μₖN

 Drag Force: F = ½ρv²CᴅA (air resistance)

3. Momentum and Impulse

Linear Momentum

 Momentum: p⃗ = mv⃗

 Impulse: J⃗ = F⃗Δt = Δp⃗

 Conservation of Momentum: Σp⃗ᵢₙᵢₜᵢₐₗ = Σp⃗fᵢₙₐₗ

Collisions

Elastic Collision (1D)

 v₁f = ((m₁-m₂)v₁ᵢ + 2m₂v₂ᵢ)/(m₁+m₂)

  v₂f = ((m₂-m₁)v₂ᵢ + 2m₁v₁ᵢ)/(m₁+m₂)

Inelastic Collision

 m₁v₁ᵢ + m₂v₂ᵢ = (m₁ + m₂)vf (perfectly inelastic)

4. Work and Energy

Work

 W = F⃗ · d⃗ = Fd cos θ

 W = ∫F⃗ · dr⃗ (variable force)

Kinetic Energy

 KE = ½mv²

 Work-Energy Theorem: W = ΔKE

Potential Energy

 Gravitational: PE = mgh (near surface)

 Gravitational: PE = -Gm₁m₂/r (general)

 Elastic: PE = ½kx²

Conservation of Energy

 Mechanical Energy: E = KE + PE = constant (conservative forces only)

 General: Wₙₒₙ₋ₒₒₙₛₑᵣᵥₐₜᵢᵥₑ = ΔE

Power

 P = W/t = F⃗ · v⃗

 P = dW/dt

5. Rotational Motion

Moment of Force (Torque)

 τ⃗ = r⃗ × F⃗

 τ = rF sin θ

 τ = Fr⊥ (lever arm)

Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies

  Translational Equilibrium: ΣF⃗ = 0

 Rotational Equilibrium: Στ⃗ = 0

ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM

1. Electric Current

Current and Resistance

 Current: I = Q/t = dQ/dt

 Current Density: J⃗ = I/A = nqv⃗ₐ

 Ohm's Law: V = IR

 Resistance: R = ρL/A

 Resistivity: ρ (material property)

 Temperature Dependence: R(T) = R₀(1 + αΔT)

Circuit Connections

Series Connection

 Rₜₒₜₐₗ = R₁ + R₂ + R₃ + ...

 I = I₁ = I₂ = I₃ = ...

 V = V₁ + V₂ + V₃ + ...

Parallel Connection

 1/Rₜₒₜₐₗ = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + 1/R₃ + ...

 I = I₁ + I₂ + I₃ + ...

 V = V₁ = V₂ = V₃ = ...

Power and Energy

 Electric Power: P = VI = I²R = V²/R

 Joule-Lenz Law: Q = I²Rt = VIt = V²t/R

 Energy: W = Pt = QV

EMF and Internal Resistance

  Ohm's Law (complete circuit): ε = I(R + r)

 Terminal Voltage: V = ε - Ir

 Short Circuit: I = ε/r

2. Capacitance

Capacitors

 Capacitance: C = Q/V

 Parallel-Plate Capacitor: C = ε₀εᵣA/d

 Energy: U = ½CV² = ½QV = Q²/2C

Series Connection

 1/Cₜₒₜₐₗ = 1/C₁ + 1/C₂ + 1/C₃ + ...

Parallel Connection

 Cₜₒₜₐₗ = C₁ + C₂ + C₃ + ...

3. Magnetic Fields

Magnetic Force

 Lorentz Force: F⃗ = q(v⃗ × B⃗)

 Magnitude: F = qvB sin θ

 Force on Current: F⃗ = IL⃗ × B⃗

 Ampere Force: F = BIL sin θ

Motion in Magnetic Field

 Circular Motion: r = mv/qB

 Cyclotron Frequency: f = qB/2πm

 Work by Magnetic Force: W = 0 (always perpendicular)

Magnetic Field Sources

Straight Wire

 B = μ₀I/2πr

Solenoid (inside)
  B = μ₀nI (n = turns per unit length)

Circular Loop (center)

 B = μ₀I/2R

Force Between Conductors

 F/L = μ₀I₁I₂/2πd (force per unit length)

4. Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday's Law

 ε = -dΦ/dt = -d(BA cos θ)/dt

 Motional EMF: ε = BLv

Self-Inductance

 Self-induced EMF: ε = -L(dI/dt)

 Energy in Inductor: U = ½LI²

Mutual Inductance

 ε₂ = -M(dI₁/dt)

5. AC Circuits

AC Quantities

 Instantaneous: i(t) = I₀ sin(ωt + φ)

 Peak Values: I₀, V₀

 RMS Values: Iᵣₘₛ = I₀/√2, Vᵣₘₛ = V₀/√2

 Average Power: P = VᵣₘₛIᵣₘₛ cos φ

Reactance

 Inductive: X_L = ωL

 Capacitive: X_C = 1/ωC

6. Electromagnetic Oscillations

LC Circuit

 Thomson's Formula: T = 2π√(LC)

  Natural Frequency: f = 1/2π√(LC)

 Energy Oscillation: U = U_L + U_C = ½LI² + ½CV²

7. Current in Different Media

Metals

 Drift Velocity: vₐ = I/nqA

 Ohm's Law: J = σE (σ = conductivity)

Semiconductors

 Intrinsic: n = p (electron-hole pairs)

 Extrinsic: doped with impurities

 P-N Junction: creates potential barrier

Electrolytes

 Faraday's Laws: m = kIt = (M/nF)It

 Electrolysis: chemical decomposition by current

Gases

 Self-sustained: maintains itself (arc, glow discharge)

 Non-self-sustained: requires external ionization

Constants and Units

Fundamental Constants

 Speed of light: c = 3.00 × 10⁸ m/s

 Gravitational constant: G = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ N⋅m²/kg²

 Coulomb's constant: k = 8.99 × 10⁹ N⋅m²/C²

 Permittivity of free space: ε₀ = 8.85 × 10⁻¹² F/m

 Permeability of free space: μ₀ = 4π × 10⁻⁷ H/m

 Elementary charge: e = 1.60 × 10⁻¹⁹ C

Common Units
  Force: Newton (N) = kg⋅m/s²

 Energy: Joule (J) = N⋅m

 Power: Watt (W) = J/s

 Current: Ampere (A) = C/s

 Voltage: Volt (V) = J/C

 Resistance: Ohm (Ω) = V/A

 Capacitance: Farad (F) = C/V

 Inductance: Henry (H) = V⋅s/A

 Magnetic Field: Tesla (T) = Wb/m²

This reference guide covers the fundamental concepts and formulas for Mechanics and
Electricity & Magnetism based on the physics curriculum topics provided.

Thermodynamics, Oscillations & Waves, Quantum Physics & Nuclear Physics

THERMODYNAMICS & STATISTICAL PHYSICS

1. Kinetic Theory of Matter

Basic Principles

 Brownian Motion: Random motion of particles due to molecular collisions

 Diffusion: Net movement of particles from high to low concentration

 Molecular Motion: All matter consists of moving particles

Models of Matter States

Gases

 Large intermolecular distances

 Negligible intermolecular forces

  Random motion, frequent collisions

Liquids

 Intermediate intermolecular distances

 Significant intermolecular forces

 Particles can move but are close together

Solids

 Crystalline: Regular, ordered structure

 Amorphous: Irregular, disordered structure

 Anisotropy: Properties depend on direction in crystals

 Liquid Crystals: Intermediate order between liquid and solid

2. Ideal Gas Laws

Equation of State

 Clapeyron-Mendeleev Equation: PV = nRT = NkT

 Universal Gas Constant: R = 8.31 J/(mol⋅K)

 Boltzmann Constant: k = 1.38 × 10⁻²³ J/K

 Avogadro's Number: Nₐ = 6.02 × 10²³ mol⁻¹

Dalton's Law

 Partial Pressures: Pₜₒₜₐₗ = P₁ + P₂ + P₃ + ...

 Mole Fractions: Pᵢ = xᵢPₜₒₜₐₗ

Kinetic Theory Results

 Average Kinetic Energy: ⟨Eₖ⟩ = (3/2)kT

 RMS Speed: vᵣₘₛ = √(3RT/M) = √(3kT/m)

 Pressure: P = (1/3)nmv̄ ²

3. Thermodynamic Systems

Internal Energy

 Monatomic Ideal Gas: U = (3/2)nRT

  Diatomic Ideal Gas: U = (5/2)nRT

 General: dU = nCᵥdT

First Law of Thermodynamics

 General Form: dU = δQ - δW

 For Gases: δW = PdV

 Complete Form: dU = δQ - PdV

Heat and Work

 Heat Capacity: C = δQ/dT

 Specific Heat: c = C/m

 Molar Heat Capacity: Cₘ = C/n

 Relation: Cₚ - Cᵥ = R (for ideal gas)

4. Thermodynamic Processes

Isoprocesses

Isothermal (T = constant)

 PV = constant

 W = nRT ln(V₂/V₁) = nRT ln(P₁/P₂)

 ΔU = 0, Q = W

Isobaric (P = constant)

 V/T = constant

 W = P(V₂ - V₁) = nR(T₂ - T₁)

 Q = nCₚΔT

Isochoric (V = constant)

 P/T = constant

 W=0

 Q = ΔU = nCᵥΔT

Adiabatic (Q = 0)
  PVᵞ = constant, TVᵞ⁻¹ = constant

 γ = Cₚ/Cᵥ (adiabatic index)

 W = -ΔU = nCᵥ(T₁ - T₂)

5. Heat Transfer

Methods of Heat Transfer

Thermal Conduction

 Fourier's Law: q = -kA(dT/dx)

 k = thermal conductivity

Convection

 Natural: Due to density differences

 Forced: Due to external flow

Radiation

 Stefan-Boltzmann Law: P = σAT⁴

 σ = 5.67 × 10⁻⁸ W/(m²⋅K⁴)

Heat Calculation

 Sensible Heat: Q = mcΔT

 Latent Heat: Q = mL

 Heat of Vaporization: Lᵥ

 Heat of Fusion: Lf

6. Phase Transitions

Vaporization and Condensation

 Evaporation: Surface phenomenon at any temperature

 Boiling: Bulk phenomenon at specific temperature

 Clausius-Clapeyron: dp/dT = L/(TΔV)

 Pressure Dependence: Higher pressure → higher boiling point

7. Heat Engines and Second Law

Heat Engines

 Efficiency: η = W/Qₕ = (Qₕ - Qₒ)/Qₕ

 Carnot Efficiency: ηₒₐᵣₙₒₜ = 1 - Tₒ/Tₕ

 Work Output: W = Qₕ - Qₒ

Second Law of Thermodynamics

 Kelvin Statement: No engine can convert heat completely to work

 Clausius Statement: Heat cannot flow spontaneously from cold to hot

 Entropy: dS ≥ δQ/T (equality for reversible processes)

OSCILLATIONS & WAVES

1. Sound Waves

Wave Properties

 Speed of Sound: v = √(B/ρ) (in gases: v = √(γRT/M))

 Wave Equation: v = fλ

 Typical Speed: ~343 m/s in air at 20°C

Sound Characteristics

 Loudness: Related to amplitude/intensity

 Pitch: Related to frequency

 Timbre: Related to harmonic content

 Intensity: I = P/A = ½ρvω²A² (A = amplitude)

2. Mechanical Oscillations

Simple Harmonic Motion

 Displacement: x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ)

 Velocity: v(t) = -Aω sin(ωt + φ)

 Acceleration: a(t) = -Aω² cos(ωt + φ) = -ω²x

 Angular Frequency: ω = 2πf = 2π/T

Energy in SHM

 Kinetic Energy: KE = ½mv² = ½mω²A² sin²(ωt + φ)

 Potential Energy: PE = ½kx² = ½kA² cos²(ωt + φ)

 Total Energy: E = ½kA² = ½mω²A²

Common Oscillators

Mass-Spring System

 ω = √(k/m)

 T = 2π√(m/k)

Simple Pendulum

 ω = √(g/L) (small angles)

 T = 2π√(L/g)

3. Forced Oscillations and Resonance

Forced Oscillations

 Driving Force: F(t) = F₀ cos(ωₐt)

 Steady-State Response: x(t) = A cos(ωₐt - φ)

 Amplitude: A = F₀/m / √[(ω₀² - ωₐ²)² + (2γωₐ)²]

Resonance

 Resonance Frequency: ωᵣₑₛ ≈ ω₀ (natural frequency)

 Quality Factor: Q = ω₀/2γ

 Bandwidth: Δω = ω₀/Q

4. Electromagnetic Oscillations

LC Circuit

 Thomson's Formula: T = 2π√(LC)

 Natural Frequency: f₀ = 1/(2π√(LC))

 Angular Frequency: ω₀ = 1/√(LC)

Energy Oscillation
  Total Energy: E = ½LI₀² = ½CV₀²

 Current: I(t) = I₀ cos(ω₀t + φ)

 Voltage: V(t) = V₀ cos(ω₀t + φ + π/2)

Analogy with Mechanical Oscillations

 L ↔ m (inductance ↔ mass)

 1/C ↔ k (1/capacitance ↔ spring constant)

 I ↔ v (current ↔ velocity)

 V ↔ x (voltage ↔ displacement)

5. AC Circuits

RMS and Peak Values

 Current: Iᵣₘₛ = I₀/√2

 Voltage: Vᵣₘₛ = V₀/√2

 Power: P = VᵣₘₛIᵣₘₛ cos φ

Impedance

 Resistor: Z = R

 Inductor: Z = jωL

 Capacitor: Z = 1/(jωC)

 RLC Circuit: Z = R + j(ωL - 1/ωC)

QUANTUM PHYSICS & ATOMIC STRUCTURE

1. Photons and Quantum Nature of Light

Planck's Quantum Theory

 Photon Energy: E = hf = hc/λ

 Planck's Constant: h = 6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ J⋅s

 Reduced Planck Constant: ℏ = h/2π

Photon Properties
  Energy: E = pc (massless particle)

 Momentum: p = E/c = h/λ

 Rest Mass: m₀ = 0

2. Thermal Radiation

Blackbody Radiation Laws

Stefan-Boltzmann Law

 Total Power: P = σAT⁴

 Stefan-Boltzmann Constant: σ = 5.67 × 10⁻⁸ W/(m²⋅K⁴)

Wien's Displacement Law

 Peak Wavelength: λₘₐₓT = 2.898 × 10⁻³ m⋅K

 Peak Frequency: fₘₐₓ = 5.88 × 10¹⁰ T Hz

Planck's Law

 Spectral Radiance: B(λ,T) = (2hc²/λ⁵) × 1/(e^(hc/λkT) - 1)

3. Photoelectric Effect

Stoletov's Experiments and Laws

1. Threshold Frequency: No photoelectrons below f₀

2. Instantaneous Emission: No time delay

3. Current vs. Intensity: Linear relationship

4. Maximum KE vs. Frequency: Linear relationship

Einstein's Photoelectric Equation

 Energy Conservation: hf = φ + KEₘₐₓ

 Work Function: φ = hf₀

 Stopping Potential: eV₀ = KEₘₐₓ = h(f - f₀)

4. Atomic Structure

Bohr's Model

Bohr's Postulates
 1. Stationary Orbits: Electrons in specific energy levels

2. Quantized Angular Momentum: L = nℏ

3. Radiation: Only during transitions between levels

Energy Levels (Hydrogen)

 Energy: Eₙ = -13.6/n² eV

 Radius: rₙ = n²a₀ (a₀ = 0.529 Å, Bohr radius)

 Transition Energy: ΔE = hf = E₂ - E₁

Emission and Absorption Spectra

Types of Spectra

 Continuous: All wavelengths (blackbody)

 Line Emission: Discrete wavelengths (hot gas)

 Line Absorption: Dark lines in continuous spectrum

Hydrogen Spectrum Series

 Lyman Series: n → 1 (UV)

 Balmer Series: n → 2 (visible)

 Paschen Series: n → 3 (IR)

5. Wave-Particle Duality

de Broglie Waves

 de Broglie Wavelength: λ = h/p = h/mv

 All particles have wave properties

 Electron Wavelength: λ = h/√(2mₑeV)

Wave-Particle Duality

 Light: Wave (interference) and particle (photoelectric effect)

 Matter: Particle (classical) and wave (electron diffraction)

 Complementarity: Cannot observe both aspects simultaneously

Electron Diffraction
  Crystal Diffraction: Demonstrates wave nature of electrons

 Bragg Condition: nλ = 2d sin θ

 Confirmation of de Broglie hypothesis

6. Particle Detection

Detection Methods

 Cloud Chamber: Vapor condensation on ion tracks

 Bubble Chamber: Bubble formation in superheated liquid

 Photographic Emulsion: Track recording in photosensitive material

 Scintillation Detector: Light emission from excited atoms

 Geiger Counter: Ionization in gas-filled tube

NUCLEAR & PARTICLE PHYSICS

1. Nuclear Structure

Nuclear Composition

 Nucleons: Protons and neutrons

 Atomic Number: Z = number of protons

 Mass Number: A = Z + N (N = number of neutrons)

 Isotopes: Same Z, different A

 Nuclear Notation: ₖᴬX

Heisenberg-Ivanenko Model

 Nucleus: Composed of protons and neutrons

 Nuclear Charge: Q = Ze

 Nuclear Size: R ≈ r₀A^(1/3), r₀ ≈ 1.2 fm

2. Nuclear Forces and Binding Energy

Nuclear Forces

 Strong Nuclear Force: Short-range, attractive

  Range: ~10⁻¹⁵ m (1 femtometer)

 Charge Independence: Same for p-p, p-n, n-n pairs

 Saturation: Each nucleon interacts with limited neighbors

Mass-Energy Relationship

 Mass-Energy Equivalence: E = mc²

 Atomic Mass Unit: 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c²

 Mass Defect: Δm = Zm_p + Nm_n - M_nucleus

Binding Energy

 Binding Energy: BE = Δmc²

 Binding Energy per Nucleon: BE/A

 Maximum: ~8.8 MeV/nucleon (Fe-56)

3. Radioactive Decay

Types of Decay

Alpha Decay

 ₖᴬX → ₖ₋₂ᴬ⁻⁴Y + ₂⁴He

 Q-value: Q = (M_parent - M_daughter - M_α)c²

Beta Decay

 β⁻: ₖᴬX → ₖ₊₁ᴬY + e⁻ + ν̄ ₑ

 β⁺: ₖᴬX → ₖ₋₁ᴬY + e⁺ + νₑ

 Electron Capture: ₖᴬX + e⁻ → ₖ₋₁ᴬY + νₑ

Gamma Decay

 ₖᴬX* → ₖᴬX + γ

 Internal Conversion: γ + e⁻ → e⁻ (higher energy)

Radioactive Decay Law

 Decay Equation: N(t) = N₀e^(-λt)

 Activity: A(t) = λN(t) = A₀e^(-λt)

  Half-Life: t₁/₂ = ln(2)/λ = 0.693/λ

 Mean Lifetime: τ = 1/λ

4. Nuclear Reactions

General Reaction

 Notation: A(a,b)B or A + a → B + b

 Conservation Laws: Energy, momentum, charge, mass number

Q-Value

 Energy Release: Q = (M_initial - M_final)c²

 Threshold Energy: E_th = -Q(m_a + m_A + m_b + m_B)/(2m_A) (if Q < 0)

Fission

 Heavy nucleus splits into lighter fragments

 Example: ₉₂²³⁵U + n → ₃₆⁹⁴Kr + ₅₆¹³⁹Ba + 2n

 Chain Reaction: Self-sustaining if k ≥ 1

 Critical Mass: Minimum mass for chain reaction

Fusion

 Light nuclei combine to form heavier nucleus

 Example: ₁²H + ₁³H → ₂⁴He + n + 17.6 MeV

 Requires high temperature: ~10⁸ K

5. Nuclear Technology

Nuclear Reactor

 Fuel: Enriched uranium (³²³⁵U)

 Moderator: Slows neutrons (water, graphite)

 Control Rods: Absorb neutrons (boron, cadmium)

 Coolant: Removes heat

Reactor Types

 Thermal Reactors: Use slow neutrons

  Fast Reactors: Use fast neutrons

 Breeder Reactors: Produce more fuel than consumed

Thermonuclear Fusion

 Fusion Reactions: Light nuclei → heavier nuclei

 Conditions: High temperature and pressure

 Confinement: Magnetic (tokamak) or inertial

 Advantages: Clean, abundant fuel

 Challenges: Plasma stability, energy break-even

6. Environmental and Safety Aspects

Nuclear Power

Advantages

 High energy density

 Low greenhouse gas emissions

 Reliable baseload power

Challenges

 Radioactive waste disposal

 Safety concerns

 High capital costs

 Proliferation risks

Radiation Protection

 ALARA Principle: As Low As Reasonably Achievable

 Shielding: Distance, time, shielding material

 Dose Limits: Occupational and public exposure limits

Constants and Conversion Factors

Fundamental Constants
  Planck's constant: h = 6.626 × 10⁻³⁴ J⋅s

 Reduced Planck constant: ℏ = 1.055 × 10⁻³⁴ J⋅s

 Speed of light: c = 2.998 × 10⁸ m/s

 Boltzmann constant: k = 1.381 × 10⁻²³ J/K

 Avogadro's number: Nₐ = 6.022 × 10²³ mol⁻¹

 Gas constant: R = 8.314 J/(mol⋅K)

 Stefan-Boltzmann constant: σ = 5.670 × 10⁻⁸ W/(m²⋅K⁴)

Particle Masses

 Electron: mₑ = 9.109 × 10⁻³¹ kg = 0.511 MeV/c²

 Proton: m_p = 1.673 × 10⁻²⁷ kg = 938.3 MeV/c²

 Neutron: m_n = 1.675 × 10⁻²⁷ kg = 939.6 MeV/c²

 Atomic mass unit: 1 u = 1.661 × 10⁻²⁷ kg = 931.5 MeV/c²

Energy Conversions

 1 eV = 1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ J

 1 MeV = 1.602 × 10⁻¹³ J

 1 cal = 4.184 J

 kT at 300 K ≈ 0.026 eV

This reference guide covers the fundamental concepts and formulas for Thermodynamics,
Oscillations & Waves, Quantum Physics, and Nuclear Physics based on the physics curriculum
topics provided.