LEARNING AND ITS VARIOUS CONCERNS PART-2
Learner - Learning - Individual Differences
Who is a learner? A Learner is someone who is learning about a particular subject or how
to do something. Every child is unique and children adopt different learning styles as per their
abilities and interests. Every teacher is thus responsible for dealing with many differences among
learners. These differences could be because:
● Children coming from homes where parents have no educational exposure.
● Children studying in residential and special schools.
● Children with no earlier exposure to pre-school education.
● Children of seasonal migrant parents.
● Children living in Juvenile homes.
● Children with behavioural and emotional difficulties.
● Children who have been ill for a long time.
● Children whose parents are HIV positive or having other medical problems.
● Children whose parents are not alive.
● Orphans.
● Children belonging to different religious, ethnic and minority groups.
● Children whose home language is different from the school language.
● Children, who may not be able to see, hear, understand or have other problems.
Normally we tend to think that some or all the above mentioned situations lead to learning
problems. However, these children may be at risk of negative and meaningless school experiences
if teachers are not responsive to their needs and abilities. To enhance the participation of all
children and cater to their needs it is important for a teacher to be aware of the socio-cultural and
the physical health of each child. In addition, he/she also needs to understand that non academic
factors also influence their learning to a certain extent.
Many social factors that affect learning cannot be immediately changed. However,
understanding these factors will help teachers to see why learners sometimes do not perform as
expected or misbehave in class.
LEARNING
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior, caused by organization of habits,
skills and tendencies which already exist. It implies that change in behavior due to maturation or
injury such as brain damage is not learning.
According to Melvin H. Marks, “learning is a relatively enduring change in behavior which
is a function of prior behavior”.
The first characteristics of learning are that learning is a permanent change in behavior.
The second attribute is that learning cannot be directly observed. It is manifested in activities. The
third attribute of learning is that it results in some change of enduring nature. The fourth is that
learning depends on practice and experience.
In other words, learning results as a consequence of the organism’s interaction in a
situation. This causes a new mode of behavior which will affect the general behavior pattern of
the organism to some degree.
Learning is the main aim of education. The main duty of the teacher is to provide the
learners with experience which will produce learning. Thus one of the aims of education is to
maximize learning of different types. This leads to the consideration of different types of learning.
The major types of learning are cognitive learning, attitudinal learning and skill learning.
Children will learn better-
if:
● Their “new learning” is based on their “previous learning”. Children come to school not
as “empty slates” but with a lot of experiences already with them.
● Learning is not limited to the time spent within the four walls of the school. It is a
continuous process and therefore, classroom learning needs to be related to the child’s home
environment and daily life experiences.
● Knowledge is not doled out by the teacher rather children construct their own knowledge.
Therefore, each child may interpret any given information in her/his own way based on the
previous knowledge base and arrive at her/his own conclusions and understanding .
● More than one sense is involved in the teaching learning processes. Opportunities for
sensory stimulation (smell, touch, taste, hearing and seeing) need to be provided through a wide
range and variety of experiences.
● Opportunities are provided to interact with other children and, therefore, cooperative
learning should be encouraged through group work, peer learning, etc.
● They are allowed to learn at their own pace. Flexibility is, therefore, very important in
providing learning time as well as in setting expectations based on each child’s needs, interests
and styles of learning.
● An integrated approach is provided and not segmented into fragmented knowledge.
● Given the opportunity to come back to these concepts and skills again in the later grades
along with the new learning so that this learning gets consolidated. However, when revisiting
concepts the degree of complexity of tasks may be increased to match the child’s maturity.
● Encouragement is given and they are able to experience success. Children’s efforts
should also be appreciated, not only their achievements.
● Content is interesting and captivating and the teaching learning process is joyful and also
allows for active participation and play.
It is also important to understand that children vary in their cognitive styles and hence
differs in the way they think and reason out problems, e.g. some children by nature are more
reflective, and they think deeply before giving the answer or deciding on a solution. Others are
more impulsive and respond immediately. We should, thus, be prepared for every child to behave
and respond differently even in a similar situation. Children’s learning proceeds from concrete to
abstract, from familiar to unfamiliar and from specific to general. Children, thus, need to be given
a lot of concrete experiences and examples to help them arrive at conclusions, rules and principles.
Children at the primary stage and upper primary learn through repetition. Hence, there is a need to
provide for practice and drill especially for the development of certain skills. However, they do
not enjoy monotonous repetition.
LEARNING PROCESS
The past century of research on learning has been a journey through a variety of theories
and research that have alternately focused on behavioral, emotional, and/or cognitive aspects of
learning.
As we enter this new millennium, there is an increased tendency to look at learning from a
more integrative and holistic perspective. Part of this impetus has been the growing recognition
from various research perspectives (e.g., neurological brain research, psychological and
sociological research, biological sciences research) that meaningful and sustained learning is a
whole person phenomenon.
Learning can be reduced to a purely physiological or behavioral process, but in so doing,
we reduce human phenomena to the level of lower order animals. In fact, we now know from brain
research that even young children have the capacity for complex thinking (e.g., Caine& Caine,
1997; Diamond & Hopson, 1998; Jensen, 1998; Sylwester, 1995; Wolfe & Sorgen, 1990).
While real life learning is often characterized as playful, recursive and non-linear,
engaging, self-directed, and meaningful from the learner's perspective. Motivation and learning
look like the natural processes they are in real life learning - but they rarely seem so in most school
settings. Why? Zimmerman (1994), for example, has argued that sell-regulated learning is, by
definition, only possible in contexts that provide for choice and control. If students do not have
options to choose among or if they are not allowed to control critical dimensions of their learning
(such as what topics to pursue, how and when to study, and the outcomes they want to achieve),
regulation of thinking and learning processes by the self is not fully possible. Externally imposed
conditions then regulate the content, structure, and process of learning.
Generally speaking, over the past 60 years, three major conceptual frameworks have
emerged, and these three will be the focus of this entry. The first of these frameworks looks at
learning in terms of observable behavior. In simple terms, learning is defined as any relatively
permanent change in behavior that is not the result of normal growth or maturation. There is no
limit to the range of behaviors that might be considered or the contexts in which they occur.
The second framework, which began to appear in the late 1960s and early 1970s,
deliberately moved away from behavioral explanations, focusing instead on the information-
processing activities that occur in the human brain. This movement, known as the cognitive
revolution in human learning, developed largely around questions about memory and meaning.
A third framework for investigating human learning began to be noticed during the early
1990s. In contrast to the cognitive point of view, in which learning is defined in terms of an
individual’s computation of information, this framework focuses more on how people work and
learn in cultural settings. Here learning is defined not as the acquisition of knowledge but as
participation in meaningful social practices.
Learning as Behavior Change
Learning from a behavioral perspective involves examining the relationship between what
animals or humans do (i.e., their responses) and what the environment does (i.e., various stimulus
events). When behavior changes systematically in relation to environmental stimuli, behaviorists
refer to such learning in terms of a conditioning process. A modest complexity in this is that two
types of conditioning are possible, and they are based on different learning principles.
Learning as Information Processing
During the long period in which behavioral frameworks dominated learning research, the
activity of the human brain was somewhat of a mystery. However, as described earlier, the many
questions about what goes on inside the ‘‘black box’’ began to be revealed as investigators
employed a range of methodologies to tease out some of the basics of how humans process
information and how the memory system worked. This movement began in the late 1950s and was
experiencing great momentum by the 1970s. In a nutshell, the entire conversation about learning
rapidly shifted from questions about behavior to questions about knowledge acquisition and the
construction of meaning. The main contributions of the cognitive orientation to learning, are-
1. It is important to recognize the active nature of human information processing and to understand
some of the capacities and constraints of the memory system.
2. Because knowledge acquisition is such a central theme in cognitive learning, it is important to
know something about the structure and organization of memory. If learners are constantly
building knowledge, what do their mental representations look like.
4. Learning is not simply a linear process in which people continue to add to their knowledge
stores; rather, learning is a cyclical process of returning again and again to existing concepts that
must be refined and oftentimes corrected for misconceptions.
Learning as Social Participation
Until the late 1980s the most significant contributions to research on learning occurred in
laboratory settings, and the largest application contexts were in the public schools at all levels. As
seen in the discussion thus far, the emphasis on learning—whether with respect to observable
behavior or less visible cognitive activity— has been on individual learners performing mostly
solo. This emphasis on individual performance has served people well in some respects; after all,
success in school is largely a solo affair, particularly when it is explicitly reinforced that way with
the continuing emphasis on grades as the primary indicator of learning.
What changed during the 1990s is that new research was conducted not in psychology
laboratories but by social anthropologists in everyday cultural practices. Examples of the contexts
studied included craft cultures such as meat cutters and tailors, professional settings such as naval
navigation and insurance claims processing, and other practices such as embodied
in Weight Watchers clubs and Alcohol Anonymous meetings.
Learning process design
1) Learning content structure
Linked with the phase of defining the specific course competences, the learning content of
the course will be decided and structured as a set of topics or modules. In this phase also the
intended learning level for each module has to be identified. For some modules the learning process
can be limited to only a traditional classroom session and for the learner being informed and
becoming knowledgeable about the topic. Though for more important topics the learning process
will include more participation of the learner and even will be organized as a real constructivism
based learning process consisting of several learning activities.
2) The 5 E-model
The 5 E-model is an instructional model based on the constructivist approach to learning.
The model proposes 5 learning principles:
a) Engage: Learners will become engaged in the concept, process or skill to be learnt.
b) Explore: Learners actively explore their environment or manipulate materials.
c) Explain: Learners experience opportunities to verbalize their conceptual understanding or to
demonstrate new skills or behaviors. In this phase the teachers will also introduce formal terms,
definitions and explanations about the learning content.
d) Elaborate: To practice skills and behaviors resulting in deeper and broader understanding of
major concepts.
e) Evaluate: To assess learners understanding and abilities.
3) Intended learning level
Related with the importance of the learning content, the intended learning level will be
different. From being only informed to being included as a responsible participant if a project, we
differentiate the following learning levels:
a) To know, to be informed.
b) To understand and create personal insight.
c) To understand the application of the knowledge in relevant practice.
d) To extend the knowledge by searching new linked knowledge.
e) To analyze new knowledge to reflect and to create new insights.
f) To apply the knowledge and generalize new alternatives in a new domain.
4) Teaching activities
From teaching point of view teaching can be seen as a composition of phased activities.
Based on the e-model we adapted the following phases in our learning process:
a) Content presentation by the teacher (sometimes combined with self-pased and ICT enhanced
learning =blended model)
b) Exercises.
c) Organize an activity where students will have to find new related knowledge. Often they can
search for literature in the (e-) library.
d) Link with business practice will be presented.
e) Organize a project so that learners will have to apply and expand the knowledge in a new
situation.
f) Evaluate what “learnt” = assessment.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Members of the same species have certain common characteristics which make a particular
member different from the other. Inspite of their superficial similarity, they differ among
themselves in various ways and dimensions.
Nature and areas of individual differences
Nature and some of the major areas of individual differences are.
1. Physical differences
Individual differences are very much pronounced in physical development. Individuals
differ in height, weight, colour of the skin, eyes and hair, size of the muscles etc., Again, there
is structure and function of internal organs, facial expression and other physical characteristics.
These differences are present even at the time of birth.
2. Intellectual or mental differences
Individuals differ a great deal among themselves in mental abilities like reasoning, thinking,
imagination, creative power, concentration, etc. On the basis of intellectual power people are
grouped into norml, bright, very bright and genius etc.
3. Emotional differences
Differences among individuals are noted at emotional level also. Some are emotionally mature
and stable; while some others are immature and unstable. Positive emotions like love, affection,
amusement etc are found to be strong in some. In some other individuals negative emotions like
hatred, anger etc are strong.
4. Social and moral difference
Individuals are found to differ much in social and moral areas. Some re socially well adjusted
while some others are found to be ill adjusted. Some are morally sound, while others are morally
weak.
5. Difference in motor ability
Even in new born children differences in motor activity is strictly revealed. Some show slow
and poorly developed reflex responses; some show quick and rich reflex responses. As they grow
the differences widen.
6. Differences in achievements
7. Differences in aptitude and interests
8. Differences in learning
Some learn very fast; some are slow learners. There are many who are found of rote
learning. there are others who learn fast by practice. The method of learning differs from person
to person.
9. Differences in attitude, belief and opinion
10. Differences in gender
11. Differences in personality
12. Differences in creativity
Factors responsible for individual differences
The most important factor causing individual difference is heredity. It provides individuals
with native environment, qualities and capacities. Individual difference in the colour of the skin,
eye, shape and size of the body, difference in intelligence and emotions re decided and produced
by heredity. Parents transmit many of the qualities to their children.
Environment is the next factor that brings about individual differences. The environment
of the child consists of the condition of womb of the mother, the physical and mental health of the
mother, the nature of birth, nutrition and care of the infant, the family atmosphere, social
atmosphere etc.
MANAGEMENT OF LEARNING IN OFFLINE AND ONLINE
Teacher enthusiasm, organization, and technical skill of instruction are almost all of the
characteristics of an effective classroom leader. Almost it is sophistication regarding classroom
management that makes educated and enthusiastic teachers Classroom management encompasses
all the components that impact upon the smooth delivery of education to students. These
components include teacher behavior, student behavior, and the classroom’s physical features.
This entry reviews the most common factors that may provoke problem behaviors for individual
students or for an entire class, describes methods for determining why the problems are occurring,
and suggests how to intervene effectively.
The Role of the Teacher in the Classroom Management
The timing of classroom management and organization also impacts students’ perceptions
of the teacher as an effective manager. When students have been asked to describe effective
classroom managers, researchers report that these are teachers who set clear expectations and
consequences early in the year. They also describe teachers who consistently (and predictably)
follow through with consequences, as opposed to merely threatening consequences.
These characteristics appear essential in establishing good classroom environment in terms
of social support and mutual respect.
Teachers are encouraged to focus more on the learning task than on the outcome or grade
assigned at the end of the task, although this becomes much more difficult if the emphasis in
education is placed on accountability and high-stakes testing.
Although most classroom environment studies are by definition limited to classrooms, a
few studies have investigated the impact of the school culture on classroom environment.
When it comes to technology, Orlando and Attard (2015) stated that “teaching with
technology is not a one size fits all approach as it depends on the types of technology in use at the
time and also the curriculum content being taught” (p. 119). This means that the incorporation of
technology provides additional factors for consideration in terms of teaching pedagogy and
construction of learning experiences.
However, in creating individually tailored differentiated instruction for each learner within
and across each cohort, additional workload pressures on those seeking to engage with the online
environment can be created as teaching staff seek to respond, often reactively, to the individual
learning and engagements needs of each cohort.
While the online environment provides opportunities for the ways education is delivered
and accessed by learners, assessment practices are often limited in the variety and modes in which
they are allocated in the online environment (Williams, Cameron, & Morgan, 2012). Even so,
online group presentation assessments do not appear to be common practice which may be due to
some of the difficulties experienced by both students and academics in using an online delivery
platform (Jaques & Salmon, 2007).
Knowing learners and tailoring instruction accordingly should be the greatest skill of every
efficient teacher.
SUMMARY
Learner, learning process and teacher are the three pillars of the formal education system.
These are interconnected also. A teacher should understand their learner before to teach. With
respect to that understand he/ she can be taught them. Then only learning process will be complete
in a better way. We have talked about the individual differences. Also, we have discussed various
aspects management of learners as well as the role of teachers in the classrooms.
OBJECTIVES
➢ To define and understand the learner and learning
➢ To develop an understanding the learning process
➢ To understand about the individual differences
➢ To develop an understanding about the management of learning in offline and online
➢ To understand the different role of a teacher in classroom management
ASSIGNMENTS
1. Define learner and discuss about the understanding of a learner.
2. Why should be the teacher understand a learner in a learning process?
3. Discuss about the individual differences.
4. Describe about the role of a teacher in classroom management in offline and online
learning?
5. Differentiate the management of learning in offline and online.
FAQs
1. What is mean by learning?
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior, caused by organization of habits, skills
and tendencies which already exist. It implies that change in behavior due to maturation or
injury such as brain damage is not learning. According to Melvin H. Marks, “learning is a
relatively enduring change in behavior which is a function of prior behavior”.
2. What are the characteristics of learning?
The first characteristics of learning are that learning is a permanent change in behavior. The
second attribute is that learning cannot be directly observed. It is manifested in activities. The
third attribute of learning is that it results in some change of enduring nature. The fourth is that
learning depends on practice and experience. In other words learning results as a consequence
of the organism’s interaction in a situation. This causes a new mode of behavior which will
affect the general behavior pattern of the organism to some degree.
3. What are the principles of 5 E modal?
The 5 E-model is an instructional model based on the constructivist approach to learning.
The model proposes 5 learning principles:
a) Engage: Learners will become engaged in the concept, process or skill to be learnt.
b) Explore: Learners actively explore their environment or manipulate materials.
c) Explain: Learners experience opportunities to verbalize their conceptual understanding
or to demonstrate new skills or behaviors. In this phase the teachers will also introduce
formal terms, definitions and explanations about the learning content.
d) Elaborate: To practice skills and behaviors resulting in deeper and broader
understanding of major concepts.
e) Evaluate: To assess learners understanding and abilities.
4. Describe about the factors affecting the individual differences?
The most important factor causing individual difference is heredity. It provides individuals
with native environment, qualities and capacities. Individual difference in the colour of the skin,
eye, shape and size of the body, difference in intelligence and emotions re decided and produced
by heredity. Parents transmit many of the qualities to their children. Environment is the next factor
that brings about individual differences. The environment of the child consists of the condition of
womb of the mother, the physical and mental health of the mother, the nature of birth, nutrition
and care of the infant, the family atmosphere, social atmosphere etc.
5. Write a short note on the role of a teacher in management of learning process?
The timing of classroom management and organization also impacts students’ perceptions
of the teacher as an effective manager. When students have been asked to describe effective
classroom managers, researchers report that these are teachers who set clear expectations and
consequences early in the year. They also describe teachers who consistently (and predictably)
follow through with consequences, as opposed to merely threatening consequences. These
characteristics appear essential in establishing good classroom environment in terms of social
support and mutual respect. Additionally, the amount of time a teacher spends in teaching
organizational behaviors impacts the classroom environment. Researchers have found that
students in classrooms that spent more time early in the school year on organizational instruction
substantially increased the amount of time students spent in student-managed activities later in the
academic year. Intentionally providing organizational instruction at the start of the academic year
is a characteristic of an effective classroom environment manager.
GLOSSARY
Learner
A Learner is someone who is learning about a particular subject or how to do something.
Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior, caused by organization of habits, skills and
tendencies which already exist. It implies that change in behavior due to maturation or injury such
as brain damage is not learning. According to Melvin H. Marks, “learning is a relatively enduring
change in behavior which is a function of prior behavior”.
Individual differences
Individual differences are the certain differences which carry the members of the same species
which make a particular member different from the other.