SECTION 1: ADVANCED PHYSICS

1. Heat and Temperature (Advanced Concepts)

Heat

Heat is a form of energy that flows from a ho er object to a colder object.

Heat is measured in Joules (J) or Calories (cal).

Temperature

Temperature measures the degree of hotness and is measured in:

 Celsius (°C)

 Fahrenheit (°F)

 Kelvin (K – SI unit)

Thermal Expansion

When substances are heated, they expand, and when cooled, they contract.

Three types of thermal expansion:

1. Linear Expansion – expansion in length

2. Area Expansion – expansion in surface area

3. Volume Expansion – expansion in volume

Examples:

 Railway tracks have gaps

 Telephone wires sag in summer

 Mercury rises in thermometer

2. Transfer of Heat

Heat transfers in three ways:

Conduc on

Occurs in solids.
Heat flows from par cle to par cle.

Examples:

 Hea ng one end of an iron rod

  Cooking utensils

Good conductors: metals (copper, iron, aluminium)

Insulators: wood, plas c, rubber

Convec on

Occurs in liquids and gases.

Hot fluids rise; cold fluids sink, forming a convec on current.

Examples:

 Sea breeze

 Land breeze

 Hea ng water in a pot

Radia on

Transfer of heat without a medium.

Sunlight reaches Earth through radia on.

Examples:

 Feeling heat from a fire

 Solar cooker working

3. Electricity (Advanced)

Electric Current

Rate of flow of electric charge.

Current = Charge / Time
Unit: Ampere (A)

Poten al Difference

Work done per unit charge.

Unit: Volt (V)

Resistance

Opposi on to the flow of current.

Unit: Ohm (Ω)
Factors affec ng resistance:

 Length of conductor

 Thickness (area)

 Material

 Temperature

Ohm’s Law

V = IR

Where:
V = Voltage
I = Current
R = Resistance

4. Magne c Effects of Electric Current

Magne c Field

Region around a magnet where magne c force acts.

Magne c field lines:

 Emerge from North pole

 Enter South pole

 Never intersect

Electromagne sm

Electric current produces a magne c field.

Examples:

 Electric bell

 Electric motor

 MRI machines

Electromagnet

Made by winding a coil around an iron core.

Proper es:

 Strong

 Temporary

 Strength increases with more coils or more current

5. Electric Motor & Generator

Electric Motor

Converts electrical energy → mechanical energy.

Used in:

 Fans

 Mixers

 Pumps

 Washing machines

Electric Generator

Converts mechanical energy → electrical energy.

Used in:

 Power sta ons

 Hydroelectric plants

6. Climate, Weather & the Atmosphere

Weather

Day-to-day condi ons of the atmosphere.

Climate

Long-term average weather of a region.

Atmosphere Layers

1. Troposphere – weather occurs here

2. Stratosphere – ozone layer

3. Mesosphere – meteors burn

4. Thermosphere – auroras
 5. Exosphere – outermost layer

Greenhouse Effect

Gases like CO₂, CH₄ trap heat.

Leads to global warming.

SECTION 2: ADVANCED CHEMISTRY

7. States of Ma er (Advanced)

Besides solid, liquid, gas, there are also:

Plasma

Ionized gas.
Examples:

 Stars

 Sun

 Neon signs

 Lightning

Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)

Super-cooled ma er behaving as a single atom.

8. Atomic Structure (Advanced)

Electron shells/energy levels:

 K, L, M, N…

Maximum electrons in shells:

 K=2

 L=8

 M = 18

 N = 32

Valence Electrons
Electrons in outermost shell.
Determine:

 Reac vity

 Bonding

 Type of ion formed

Isotopes

Atoms with same protons but different neutrons.

Example:

 C-12, C-14

 U-235, U-238

Uses:

 Carbon da ng

 Medical radia on

9. Chemical Bonding

Atoms combine to become stable.

Types of Bonds

1. Ionic Bond

o Transfer of electrons

o Between metal & non-metal

Example: NaCl

2. Covalent Bond

o Sharing of electrons

o Between non-metals

Example: H₂, CO₂

3. Metallic Bond

o Free electrons

o Conduct electricity
10. Chemical Reac ons (Advanced)

Indicators

Used to iden fy acid or base:

 Litmus

 Phenolphthalein

 Turmeric

 Methyl orange

Neutraliza on

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Used in:

 Antacids

 Soil treatment

 Chemical factories

11. Metals: Chemical Proper es

Metals react with:

 Oxygen → Metal oxides

 Water → Metal hydroxides

 Acids → Salt + Hydrogen

 Salt solu ons → More reac ve metal displaces less reac ve

Reac vity Series

K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > H > Cu > Ag > Au

12. Rus ng of Iron

Rust = Fe₂O₃ · xH₂O

Occurs in presence of air + moisture.

Preven on:

 Pain ng

 Galvanizing
  Alloying

 Oiling

13. Carbon and Its Compounds (Intro)

Carbon forms:

 Single bonds

 Double bonds

 Triple bonds

Important compounds:

 Methane

 Ethane

 Ethanol

 Ace c acid

Carbon shows catena on – ability to form long chains.

14. Air Around Us

Air composi on:

 Nitrogen – 78%

 Oxygen – 21%

 CO₂ – 0.03%

 Others – 0.97%

Importance:

 Oxygen for breathing

 Nitrogen for plants

 CO₂ for photosynthesis

SECTION 3: ADVANCED BIOLOGY

15. Microorganisms (Advanced)

Bacteria

Shapes:

 Rod (bacillus)

 Spherical (coccus)

 Spiral

Helpful bacteria:

 Nitrogen fixa on

 Diges on

 Making an bio cs

Harmful:

 TB

 Cholera

 Typhoid

16. Human Health & Diseases

Pathogens

Disease-causing organisms:

 Virus

 Bacteria

 Fungi

 Protozoa

Types of Diseases

1. Infec ous diseases – spread from person to person

2. Non-infec ous diseases – deficiency, lifestyle

Examples:

 Diabetes

 Cancer
  Anemia

17. Human Brain (Advanced)

Parts:

1. Cerebrum – intelligence, memory

2. Cerebellum – balance, coordina on

3. Medulla – breathing, heartbeat

18. Heart and Circula on (Advanced)

Heart has 4 chambers

 Right atrium

 Right ventricle

 Le atrium

 Le ventricle

Types of circula on:

 Pulmonary

 Systemic

Blood pressure:

 Normal: 120/80

19. Hormones

Hormones control body func ons.

Major hormones:

 Insulin – pancreas

 Adrenaline – adrenal glands

 Thyroxine – thyroid

 Growth hormone – pituitary

 Estrogen & testosterone – reproduc ve hormones

20. Reproduc on (Advanced)

Male System

 Testes

 Sperm ducts

 Penis

Female System

 Ovaries

 Fallopian tubes

 Uterus

Menstrua on Cycle

28 days cycle.

21. Gene cs and Heredity

Mendel’s Laws

1. Law of Dominance

2. Law of Segrega on

3. Law of Independent Assortment

Genes

Units of heredity.

DNA

Gene c material.

22. Evolu on Basics

 Natural selec on

 Adapta on

 Survival of the fi est

Examples:
  Long neck of giraffe

 Camouflage in insects

23. Food Produc on

Agricultural Prac ces

 Ploughing

 Sowing

 Irriga on

 Weeding

 Harves ng

 Storage

Fer lizers vs Manure

Fer lizers: chemical, quick

Manure: natural, improves soil

24. Forest Ecosystem (Advanced)

Layers:

1. Forest floor

2. Understory

3. Canopy

4. Emergent layer

Importance:

 Oxygen

 Rainfall

 Habitat

 Prevents soil erosion

25. Environmental Issues

Air Pollu on

Causes:

 Vehicles

 Factories

 Burning fuels

Effects:

 Asthma

 Acid rain

 Ozone deple on

Solu ons

 Plant trees

 Reduce fossil fuels

 Use filters

26. Waste Management

Types of waste:

 Biodegradable

 Non-biodegradable

Methods:

 Landfill

 Compos ng

 Recycling

 Incinera on