MAP PROJECTION

Map projection is the method of transferring the graticule of latitude and longitude on a plane
surface. It can also be defined as the transformation of spherical network of parallels and
meridians on a plane surface.

The network of parallels and meridians is called graticule. This network facilitates drawing of
maps. Drawing of the graticule on a flat surface is called projection.

Limitations of globe
● It is expensive.

● It can neither be carried everywhere easily nor can a minor detail be shown on it.

● On the globe the meridians are semi-circles and the parallels are circles. When they are
transferred on a plane surface, they become intersecting straight lines or curved lines.

NEED FOR MAP PROJECTION

1. The need for a map projection mainly arises to have a detailed study of
a region, which is not possible to do from a globe.

2. It is not easy to compare two natural regions on a globe.

3. Drawing accurate large-scale maps on a flat paper is required.

4. In map projection we try to represent a good model of any part of the

earth in its true shape and dimension. But distortion in some form or the
other is inevitable. To avoid this distortion, various methods have been
devised and many types of projections are drawn.

ELEMENTS OF MAP PROJECTION

a. Reduced Earth: A model of the earth is represented by the help of a

reduced scale on a flat sheet of paper. This model is called the “reduced
earth”.

b. Parallels of Latitude: These are the circles running round the globe
parallel to the equator and maintaining uniform distance from the poles.
They are not of equal length. They range from a point at each pole to the
circumference of the globe at the equator. They are demarcated as 0º to
90º North and South latitudes.
c. Meridians of Longitude: These are semi-circles drawn in north south
direction from one pole to the other and the two opposite meridians make
a complete circle, i.e. circumference of the globe. There is no obvious
central meridian but for convenience, an arbitrary choice is made, namely
the meridian of Greenwich, which is demarcated as 0° longitudes. It is
used as reference longitudes to draw all other longitudes.

d. Global Property: In preparing a map projection the following basic

properties of the global surface are to be preserved by using one or the
other methods:

(i) Distance between any given points of a region

(ii) Shape of the region
(iii) Size or area of the region in accuracy
(iv) Direction of any one point of the region bearing to another point.

Conversions from a Globe to a flat

surface produces distortions in
area, shape and directions
CLASSIFICATION OF MAP PROJECTIONS
Map Projections may be classified on the following bases:
a. Drawing Techniques

1. PERSPECTIVE- Perspective projections can be drawn taking the help of a

source of light by projecting the image of a network of parallels and
meridians of a globe on developable surface
2. NON-PERSPECTIVE- projections are developed without the help of a
source of light or casting shadow on surfaces, which can be flattened.
3. CONVENTIONAL OR MATHEMATICAL- Mathematical or conventional
projections are those, which are derived by mathematical computation,
and formulae and have little relations with the projected image.

b. Developable Surface: A developable surface is one, which can be

flattened, and on which, a network of latitude and longitude can be
projected.
For eg. a cylinder, a cone and a plane.
A non-developable surface is one, which cannot be flattened without
shrinking, breaking or creasing. For eg. A globe or spherical surface.

1. CYLINDRICAL - Cylindrical projections are made through the use of

cylindrical developable surface. A paper-made cylinder covers the globe,
and the parallels and meridians are projected on it. When the cylinder is
cut open, it provides a cylindrical projection on the plane sheet.
2. CONICAL- A Conical projection is drawn by wrapping a cone round the
globe
and the shadow of graticule network is projected on it. When the cone is
cut open, a projection is obtained on a flat sheet.

3. ZENITHAL- Zenithal projection is directly obtained on a plane surface

when plane touches the globe at a point and the graticule is projected on
it. Generally, the plane is so placed on the globe that it touches the globe
at one of the poles. These projections are further subdivided into normal,
oblique or polar as per the position of the plane touching the globe. If the
developable surface touches the globe at the equator, it is called the
equatorial or normal projection. If it is tangential to a point between the
pole and the equator, it is called the oblique projection; and if it is
tangential to the pole, it is called the polar projection.

c. Global Properties: the correctness of area, shape, direction and

distances are the four major global properties to be preserved in a map.
But none of the projections can maintain all these properties
simultaneously. Therefore, according to specific need, a projection can be
drawn so that the desired quality may be retained.

1. EQUAL AREA/ HOMOLOGRAPHIC PROJECTION- It is that projection in

which areas of various parts of the earth are represented correctly.

2. ORTHOMORPHIC/ TRUE-SHAPE PROJECTION- projection is one in which

shapes of various areas are portrayed correctly. The shape is
generally maintained at the cost of the correctness of area.

3. AZIMUTHAL/TRUE BEARING- projection is one on which the direction

of all points from the centre is correctly represented.

4. EQUI-DISTANT PROJECTIONS/TRUE SCALE- projection is that where

the
distance or scale is correctly maintained. However, there is no such
projection, which maintains the scale correctly throughout. It can be
maintained correctly only along some selected parallels and meridians as
per the requirement.

d. Source of Light: On the basis of location of source of light, projections

may be classified as:
1. GNOMONIC- Gnomonic projection is obtained by putting the light at the
centre of the globe

2. STEREOGRAPHIC - Stereographic projection is drawn when the source of

light is placed at the periphery of the globe at a point diametrically
opposite to the point at which the plane surface touches the globe

3. ORTHOGRAPHIC- Orthographic projection is drawn when the source of

light is placed at infinity from the globe, opposite to the point at which the
plane surface touches the globe.
CONICAL PROJECTION WITH ONE STANDARD PARALLEL

A conical projection is one, which is drawn by projecting the image of the

graticule of a globe on a developable cone, which touches the globe along
a parallel of latitude called the standard parallel.

Properties
1. All the parallels are arcs of concentric circle and are equally spaced.
2. All meridians are straight lines merging at the pole. The meridians
intersect the parallels at right angles.
3. The scale along all meridians is true, i.e. distances along the meridians
are accurate.
4. An arc of a circle represents the pole.
5. The scale is true along the standard parallel but exaggerated away from
the standard parallel.
6. Meridians become closer to each other towards the pole.
7. This projection is neither equal area nor orthomorphic.

Limitations
1. It is not suitable for a world map due to extreme distortions in the
hemisphere opposite the one in which the standard parallel is selected.
2. Even within the hemisphere, it is not suitable for representing larger
areas as the distortion along the pole and near the equator is larger.

Uses
1. This projection is commonly used for showing areas of mid-latitudes
with limited latitudinal and larger longitudinal extent.

2. A long narrow strip of land running parallel to the standard parallel

and having east-west stretch is correctly shown on this projection.
 3. Direction along standard parallel is used to show railways, roads,
narrow river valleys and international boundaries.

4. This projection is suitable for showing the Canadian Pacific Railways,

Trans-Siberian Railways, international boundaries between USA and
Canada and the Narmada Valley.

CYLINDRICAL EQUAL AREA PROJECTION

The cylindrical equal area projection, also known as the Lambert’s

projection, has been derived by projecting the surface of the globe with
parallel rays on a cylinder touching it at the equator. Both the parallels and
meridians are projected as straight lines intersecting one another at right
angles. The pole is shown with a parallel equal to the equator; hence, the
shape of the area gets highly distorted at the higher latitude.
Properties
1. All parallels and meridians are straight lines intersecting each other
at right angle.
2. Polar parallel is also equal to the equator.
3. Scale is true only along the equator.

Limitations
1. Distortion increases as we move towards the pole.
2. The projection is non-orthomorphic.
3. Equality of area is maintained at the cost of distortion in shape.

Uses
1. The projection is most suitable for the area lying between 45º N and S
latitudes.
2. It is suitable to show the distribution of tropical crops like rice, tea,
coffee, rubber and sugarcane.
MERCATOR’S PROJECTION

A Dutch cartographer Mercator Gerardus Karmer developed this projection

in 1569. The projection is based on mathematical formulae. So, it is an
orthomorphic projection in which the correct shape is maintained. The
distance between parallels increases towards the pole. Like cylindrical
projection, the parallels and meridians intersect each other at right angle.
It has the characteristics of showing correct directions. A straight line
joining any two points on this projection gives a constant bearing, which is
called a Laxodrome or Rhumb line.

Properties
1. All parallels and meridians are straight lines and they intersect each
other at right angles.
2. All parallels have the same length which is equal to the length of
equator.
3. All meridians have the same length and equal spacing. But they are
longer than the corresponding meridian on the globe.
4. Spacing between parallels increases towards the pole.
5. Scale along the equator is correct as it is equal to the length of the
equator on the globe; but other parallels are longer than the corresponding
parallel on the globe; hence the scale is not correct along them. For
example, the 30º parallel is 1.154 times longer than the corresponding
parallel on the globe.
6. Shape of the area is maintained, but at the higher latitudes distortion
takes place.
7. The shape of small countries near the equator is truly preserved while it
increases towards poles.
8. It is an azimuthal projection.
9. This is an orthomorphic projection as scale along the meridian is equal
to the scale along the parallel.

Limitations
1. There is greater exaggeration of scale along the parallels and meridians
in high latitudes. As a result, size of the countries near the pole is highly
exaggerated. For example, the size of Greenland equals to the size of USA,
whereas it is 1/10th of USA.
2. Poles in this projection cannot be shown as 90º parallel and meridian
touching them are infinite.

Uses
1. More suitable for a world map and widely used in preparing atlas maps.
2. Very useful for navigation purposes showing sea routes and air routes.
3. Drainage pattern, ocean currents, temperature, winds and their
directions, distribution of worldwide rainfall and other weather elements
are appropriately shown on this map