Unit -01 Energy resources

Energy Resources
Definition: Energy resources are natural sources from which useful energy can be obtained
to perform work, such as generating electricity, running industries, transportation, cooking,
and heating.
They are the backbone of human civilization because almost every activity requires
energy in some form.

2. Types of Energy Resources

Energy resources are mainly divided into two categories:
A. Renewable Energy Resources
Definition:
These are energy resources that can be naturally replenished or regenerated within a short
period of time (human lifespan). They are sustainable and eco-friendly.
Examples with Explanation:
1. Solar Energy – Energy from the Sun, used in solar panels for electricity or solar heaters
for water heating.
2. Wind Energy – Moving air drives wind turbines to produce electricity.
3. Hydropower – Flowing water (dams, rivers) turns turbines to generate electricity.
4. Biomass Energy – Organic matter (wood, crop waste, cow dung) burned or processed
to release energy.
 5. Geothermal Energy – Heat from inside the Earth is used for power generation and
heating.

Key Point: These resources are practically inexhaustible on a human timescale and
cause less pollution.

B. Non-Renewable Energy Resources

Definition: These are energy resources that exist in limited amounts and cannot be
replenished quickly. Once exhausted, they take millions of years to form again.
Examples with Explanation:
1. Coal – Solid fossil fuel formed from ancient plant remains; used in thermal power
plants.
2. Petroleum (Oil) – Liquid fossil fuel, refined into petrol, diesel, and kerosene for
transport and industries.
3. Natural Gas – A Fossil fuel in gaseous form (mainly methane), used in cooking, power
generation, and fertilizers.
4. Nuclear Fuels (Uranium, Thorium) – Used in nuclear power plants to produce
electricity through nuclear fission.

Key Point: These resources are finite, exhaustible, and release harmful greenhouse gases
or radioactive waste when used.

Feature Renewable Non-Renewable

Availability Unlimited, replenished naturally Limited, exhaustible
Pollution Low/eco-friendly High (CO₂, SO₂, radioactive
waste)
Examples Solar, Wind, Hydro, Biomass, Coal, Oil, Natural Gas, Uranium
Geothermal
Sustainability Sustainable for future generations Not sustainable

Energy Resources: Origin and Forms

Origin of Energy Resources
1. Solar Origin: Most renewable resources (solar, wind, biomass, hydropower)
ultimately originate from the Sun.
o Sunlight drives winds, supports plant growth (biomass), and maintains the
water cycle (hydropower).
 2. Geological Origin: Non-renewable fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) and
nuclear fuels are formed deep inside Earth over millions of years.
Forms of Energy Resources
 Primary Energy: Available directly in nature (coal, oil, sunlight, wind, water,
uranium).
 Secondary Energy: Converted form of primary energy (electricity, hydrogen, refined
fuels).
Main Renewable Sources (with Details)
Solar Energy
 Origin: Direct radiation from the Sun.
 Forms: Solar thermal (heat) & solar photovoltaic (electricity).
1. Solar collector

Constructional Parts
I. Transparent Cover (Glass/Plastic Plate) – Allows sunlight to pass through but reduces
heat loss (like a greenhouse effect).
II. Absorber Plate (usually blackened metal) – Absorbs solar radiation and converts it into
heat.
III. Tubes/Pipes – Carry fluid (water or antifreeze solution) in contact with the absorber
plate.
IV. Insulation (at back and sides) – Prevents heat loss to surroundings.
V. Storage Tank – Stores the heated fluid for later use.

Step-by-Step Working
I. Sunlight falls on the transparent cover → It passes through and strikes the absorber
plate.
II. Absorber plate heats up → It converts solar energy into thermal energy.
III. Heat transfer to fluid → The cold fluid (water/air) flowing through the tubes absorbs
this heat.
IV. Hot fluid rises (due to thermosyphon effect) or is pumped → Moves towards the storage
tank.
V. Cold fluid enters the collector → Cycle repeats, ensuring continuous heating.
VI. The heated water/air stored in the tank can be used for domestic hot water, space
heating, or industrial processes.

Photovoltaic cell

Construction
I. Semiconductor material (usually Silicon – Si) with a p-n junction.
II. Transparent front cover – allows sunlight to enter but protects the cell.
III. Metallic contacts – top and bottom layers to collect current.
IV. Antireflective coating – reduces loss of sunlight due to reflection.

Step-by-Step Working
I. Absorption of Sunlight
a. When sunlight (photons) falls on the p-n junction semiconductor, the energy of
the photons is absorbed by electrons.
II. Electron-Hole Pair Generation
a. This energy excites electrons from the valence band to the conduction band,
creating electron-hole pairs.
III. Separation by Electric Field
a. The built-in electric field at the p-n junction drives:
i. Electrons towards the n-side.
ii. Holes towards the p-side.
IV. Flow of Current
a. When the cell is connected to an external circuit, electrons flow through it,
creating direct current (DC) electricity.
 Key Principle
 Photovoltaic Effect = Photon energy → Electron excitation → Separation at p-n
junction → Current generation.
 Merits:

o Abundant and inexhaustible.

o Eco-friendly, no greenhouse gases during use.
o Low operating cost after installation.
 Demerits:
o High initial installation cost.
o Depends on weather and sunlight availability (daytime only).
o Requires a large surface area.
 Major Applications:
o Solar panels for electricity (homes, street lights).
o Solar heaters, cookers, dryers.
o Solar thermal power plants.
2. Wind Energy

 Origin: Differential heating of Earth’s surface by the Sun causes air movement.
 Forms: Kinetic energy of wind converted into electricity by wind turbines.

Step-by-Step Working
I. Wind Flow
a. The Sun heats the Earth’s surface unevenly, creating pressure differences.
 b. Air moves from high-pressure to low-pressure regions → wind is formed.

II. Rotation of Blades

a. When wind strikes the turbine blades, it makes them rotate.
b. Blades are shaped like airplane wings (aerofoil shape) → lift force causes
continuous rotation.
III. Mechanical Energy (Rotor + Shaft)
a. The rotating blades turn a rotor connected to a low-speed shaft.
b. Through a gearbox, this speed is increased and transferred to a high-speed
shaft.
IV. Conversion to Electricity
a. The high-speed shaft drives a generator.
b. Generator converts mechanical energy → electrical energy (AC power).
V. Power Transmission
a. Electricity is sent to transformers and then to the grid for distribution.

Key Principle

 Kinetic energy of wind → Mechanical energy (turbine rotation) → Electrical

energy (generator).

 Merits:
o Clean and renewable.
o Low running cost.
o Useful in coastal and open plain regions.
 Demerits:
o Wind speed is not constant.
o Large land area needed.
o Noise and visual pollution.
 Major Applications:
o Wind farms for electricity generation.
o Water pumping in rural areas.
 o Windmills in agriculture.
3. Biogas
 Origin: Produced by anaerobic decomposition of organic matter (animal dung,
crop residue, kitchen waste) by microbes.

 Forms: Methane-rich gas (CH₄, CO₂, H₂, traces of H₂S).

Step-by-Step Principle
1. Collection of Organic Waste
o Cow dung, crop residues, and kitchen waste are mixed with water to form a
slurry.
2. Anaerobic Digestion (in a biogas digester/tank)
o The slurry is stored in an airtight chamber (digester) where no oxygen is present.
o Microorganisms (bacteria) decompose the organic matter in three stages:
 Hydrolysis – complex organic matter → simple compounds
 Acidogenesis – simple compounds → organic acids
 Methanogenesis – acids → methane (CH₄), CO₂, H₂, traces of H₂S
3. Biogas Formation
o The main gas formed is methane (CH₄ ~55–65%), which is combustible.

o Other gases: Carbon dioxide (~30–40%), hydrogen, and hydrogen sulphide.

 4. Gas Collection and Use

o Biogas rises and is collected at the top of the digester.

o The leftover slurry is removed and used as organic fertilizer.

Key Principle
 Anaerobic bacterial fermentation of organic waste → production of methane-rich
biogas.

 Merits:
o Provides clean fuel for cooking and lighting.
o Utilizes organic waste effectively.
o Slurry (by-product) is a good fertilizer.
 Demerits:
o Cannot be stored or transported easily on large scale.
o Requires continuous feed of biomass.
o Plant setup is costly for rural poor without a subsidy.
 Major Applications:

o Cooking and household heating.

o Rural electrification (biogas engines).
o Fertilizer from slurry.

4. Biomass Energy
 Origin: Derived from plant and animal materials (wood, crop residues, sugarcane
bagasse, forest waste).
 Forms: Direct burning (wood, dung cakes) or conversion into biofuels (ethanol,
biodiesel).
Step-by-Step Principle
1. Solar Origin of Biomass
o Plants capture solar energy through photosynthesis and store it as chemical
energy in the form of carbohydrates.
o When this biomass is used, the stored energy is released.
2. Energy Conversion Methods
Biomass can be converted into useful energy in different ways:
o Direct Combustion: Burning biomass (wood, crop waste, dung cakes)
releases heat for cooking, heating, or steam generation.
o Thermochemical Conversion:

 Pyrolysis → produces charcoal, gas, bio-oil.

 Gasification → produces producer gas (CO + H₂).
o Biochemical Conversion:
 Fermentation → produces ethanol (biofuel).
 Anaerobic digestion → produces biogas (mainly methane).
3. Energy Output
o Heat → for cooking, space heating, boilers.
o Electricity → biomass power plants (steam turbines, gasification units).
o Fuels → bioethanol, biodiesel for vehicles.

Key Principle
 Stored solar energy in organic matter → released as heat or converted into
fuels/electricity through combustion, biochemical, or thermochemical processes.
  Merits:
o Renewable and widely available.
o Can reduce agricultural waste problems.
o Carbon-neutral if managed sustainably.

 Demerits:
o Inefficient traditional burning (smoke, health issues).
o Deforestation if overused.
o Lower energy density compared to fossil fuels.
 Major Applications:
o Cooking and heating in rural areas.
o Power plants (biomass gasification).
o Production of bio-ethanol and biodiesel for vehicles.

Summery

Source Origin Major Merits Demerits Applications

Form
Solar Sun radiation Heat & Inexhaustible, Weather- Solar panels,
Electricity clean dependent, heaters, and
costly setup cookers
Wind Sun-driven air Electricity Clean, low Irregular Wind farms,
movement running cost wind, large pumps
land
Biogas Anaerobic Methane Clean cooking Needs Cooking, rural
decomposition gas fuel, waste feedstock, electricity
of organic utilization storage
waste problem
Biomass Plants & Heat & Renewable, Smoke, Cooking,
animals Biofuels reduces waste deforestation power plants,
(organic matter) risk biofuels

Key Concept

Solar → Light/Heat

Wind → Kine c energy → Electricity

Biogas → Methane → Cooking/Electricity

Biomass → Organic ma er → Heat/Biofuels

 Questions
Flat Plate Solar Collector (FPSC)
1. What is the working principle of a flat plate solar collector?
2. Explain the function of the absorber plate and transparent cover in FPSC.
3. Why is insulation provided at the back and sides of FPSC?
4. Differentiate between flat plate and concentrating solar collectors.
5. State two applications of flat plate solar collectors.

2. Photovoltaic Cell (Solar Cell)

1. Define the photovoltaic effect.
2. Describe the working of a photovoltaic cell with a labeled diagram.
3. What materials are commonly used in making PV cells?
4. List the advantages and limitations of photovoltaic cells.
5. Give two practical applications of photovoltaic cells in daily life.

3. Wind Energy
1. What is the principle of wind energy conversion?
2. Explain how a wind turbine converts wind into electrical energy.
3. What is the role of the gearbox in a wind turbine?
4. List three advantages and three disadvantages of wind energy.
5. What are offshore wind farms and why are they used?

4. Biogas
1. What is biogas? Name its main components.
 2. Explain the anaerobic digestion process in a biogas plant.

3. Write three advantages of using biogas as fuel.

4. Mention two limitations of biogas plants.
5. Draw a simple diagram of a biogas plant and label its parts.

5. Biomass Energy
1. Why is biomass energy called stored solar energy?
2. Explain the principle of energy generation from biomass.
3. Describe direct combustion and biochemical conversion of biomass.
4. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of biomass energy.
5. Write three important applications of biomass energy in rural areas.
 Unit-2
Review of Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics
Introduction
Thermodynamics is a branch of science that deals with energy, its different forms, and the
principles governing the conversion of energy from one form to another. It plays a fundamental
role in engineering, physics, and everyday life, influencing systems such as engines,
refrigerators, power plants, and even biological processes.
2. System, Surroundings, and Boundary
 System: The part of the universe chosen for thermodynamic study.
Example: Gas in a cylinder.
 Surroundings: Everything outside the system that interacts with it.

 Boundary: The real or imaginary surface separating the system from the surroundings.
Boundaries can be fixed or movable.
Types of Systems
1. Closed System: Mass remains constant; energy may cross the boundary (e.g., piston-
cylinder without mass transfer).
2. Open System (Control Volume): Both mass and energy can cross the boundary (e.g.,
turbine, compressor, pump).
3. Isolated System: Neither mass nor energy can cross the boundary (ideal case).

3. Properties of a System
 Property: A measurable characteristic of a system, such as pressure, temperature,
volume, and energy.
Types of Properties
1. Intensive Properties: Independent of system size or mass (e.g., temperature, pressure,
density).
2. Extensive Properties: Depend on system size or mass (e.g., volume, energy, enthalpy).
Specific Property: Extensive property per unit mass (e.g., specific volume).
4. State, Process, and Cycle
 State: The condition of a system described by its properties.
 Process: Transformation of a system from one state to another.
 Cycle: A series of processes that returns the system to its initial state.
Illustration (P-V Diagram for a cycle):
5. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
 If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other.

👉 This law establishes the concept of temperature.

6. First Law of Thermodynamics

 Principle of Conservation of Energy: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but
it can change from one form to another.
 For a closed system undergoing a cycle:
Q−W=ΔE
Where:
 Q = Heat added to system
 W = Work done by system
 ΔE = Change in internal energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy

7. Second Law of Thermodynamics

 Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter body without external
work.
 No heat engine can be 100% efficient.
Key Concepts:
 Heat engines, refrigerators, heat pumps.
 Entropy: A measure of disorder or energy unavailable for work.
8. Thermodynamic Equilibrium

A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if it is in:

1. Thermal equilibrium (no temperature difference).
2. Mechanical equilibrium (no pressure difference).
3. Chemical equilibrium (no chemical reaction tendency).
9. Quasi-Static and Reversible Processes
 Quasi-Static Process: A process that occurs infinitely slowly so the system remains in
equilibrium at every stage.
 Reversible Process: A process that can be reversed without leaving any change in
system and surroundings.

10. Applications of Thermodynamics

 Power generation (steam turbines, gas turbines).
 Internal combustion engines.
 Refrigeration and air conditioning.
 Chemical reactions and biological systems.

11. Summary
 Thermodynamics deals with energy, systems, and transformations.
 Key concepts: System, surroundings, boundary, properties, state, process, cycle.
 Fundamental laws: Zeroth, First, and Second Laws.
 Applications are found in almost every field of engineering and science.

Questions
Thermodynamic System
Q1. Define system, surroundings, and boundary. Explain the various types of thermodynamic
systems, accompanied by suitable examples and clear diagrams.

2. Properties
Q2. Differentiate between intensive and extensive properties. Give at least 3 examples of each.
What is meant by specific property?
3. State, Process, and Cycle
Q3. What do you mean by thermodynamic state, process, and cycle? Illustrate your answer
with a P-V diagram.
 Unit-3
Boilers
Introduction
In any thermal power system or industrial heating process, steam plays a central role as the
working fluid. Boilers are the prime equipment used to generate steam. A boiler is essentially
a closed pressure vessel where heat energy from fuel combustion is transferred to water,
converting it into steam.
The steam generated is utilized in:
 Power plants (to drive turbines and generate electricity)
 Industrial processes (sugar, textile, paper, and chemical industries)
 Marine applications (ships, submarines)
 Heating systems (large buildings, institutions, hospitals)
Thus, boilers are indispensable for modern industry and energy generation.
2. Definition of Boiler
A boiler may be defined as:

👉 “A boiler is a closed vessel made of steel in which water is converted into steam by
utilizing the heat produced from the combustion of fuel.”
Key points:

 Enclosed vessel (to withstand high pressure).

 Source of heat (coal, oil, gas, electricity, or nuclear energy).
 Steam generated at a required pressure and temperature.
3. Classification of Boilers
Boilers can be classified based on different parameters:
3.1 Based on the Contents of Tubes
 Fire Tube Boiler – Hot gases flow inside tubes, and water surrounds the tubes.
 Water Tube Boiler – Water flows inside tubes, and hot gases pass around them.
3.2 Based on Pressure
 Low-pressure Boiler – Produces steam up to 15 bar (e.g., Cochran boiler).
  High-pressure Boiler – Produces steam above 15 bar (e.g., Babcock & Wilcox boiler).

3.3 Based on the Axis of the Boiler

 Vertical Boiler – Axis is vertical (e.g., Cochran boiler).
 Horizontal Boiler – Axis is horizontal (e.g., Lancashire boiler).
3.4 Based on Water Circulation
 Natural Circulation – Water circulates by natural convection currents (e.g., Lancashire
boiler).
 Forced Circulation – Water is circulated by a pump (e.g., La-Mont boiler).
3.5 Based on Fuel Used
 Solid Fuel Boiler (Coal, wood, biomass)
 Liquid Fuel Boiler (Oil)
 Gas Fuel Boiler (Natural gas, LPG, biogas)
 Electric Boiler (Electric resistance or induction heating)
4. Fire Tube Boilers
Construction
A fire tube boiler consists of the following main parts:
I. Boiler Shell (Drum):
a. A large cylindrical vessel made of steel plates.
b. It contains water and steam in the upper portion.
II. Furnace/Firebox:
a. Located at one end of the shell.
b. Fuel (coal, oil, or gas) is burned here to produce hot gases.
III. Grate:
a. A platform in the furnace where solid fuel (like coal) is placed and
burned.
IV. Fire Tubes:
a. A large number of small tubes pass through the water-filled shell.
b. Hot gases travel through these tubes.
V. Smoke Box & Chimney:
a. At the end of the tubes, the hot gases enter the smoke box and are
finally discharged to the atmosphere through the chimney.
VI. Water Space:
a. The portion of the boiler shell that is filled with water.
VII. Steam Space:
a. The upper portion of the shell above the water level where steam is
collected.
VIII. Boiler Mountings (for safety & control):
 a. Safety valve, water level indicator, pressure gauge, stop valve, blow-
off cock, etc.

🔹 Working Principle
The fire tube boiler works on the simple principle of heat transfer:
I. Fuel Combustion:
a. Fuel is fed onto the grate in the furnace and ignited.
b. This produces hot flue gases.
II. Hot Gas Flow:
a. These flue gases pass through the fire tubes, which are surrounded
by water inside the shell.

III. Heat Transfer:

a. Heat from the hot gases is transferred through the metal walls of the
tubes to the surrounding water by conduction and convection.
IV. Water to Steam Conversion:
a. The water absorbs this heat, gets heated to the boiling point, and
gradually converts into steam.
V. Steam Collection:
a. Steam, being lighter than water, rises to the upper portion of the shell
and is collected in the steam space.
VI. Steam Outlet:
a. The produced steam is then taken out through the steam stop valve
for use in engines, turbines, or industrial processes.
Examples
 Cochran Boiler (vertical, multi-tube, dome-shaped)
 Working principle

 Fuel burns on the grate in the furnace, producing hot gases.

 These gases pass through the fire tubes, transferring heat to the surrounding
water.
 Water absorbs the heat and converts into steam, which rises to the steam
dome.
 Finally, the flue gases exit through the chimney, and steam is supplied via the
steam stop valve.

Simple principle: Hot gases inside tubes heat the water outside → steam is produced.

 Lancashire Boiler (horizontal, fire-tube, large capacity)

Working principle
 Coal burns on the grate in the two furnace tubes.
 Hot gases flow through the furnace tubes → combustion chamber → side flues →
bottom flue → chimney.
 Heat from gases transfers to the surrounding water in the shell, producing steam.
 Steam collects at the top and is supplied through the steam stop valve.

👉 In short: Hot gases inside tubes heat surrounding water → steam is generated.

 Locomotive Boiler (used in railway steam engines)

Working principle
 Coal burns on the grate in the firebox, producing hot gases.
 Gases pass through the fire tubes surrounded by water.
 Heat from gases converts water into steam.
 Steam collects in the dome and is supplied to the engine cylinders to run the
locomotive.

👉 Principle: Hot gases flow through tubes, water surrounds them, and steam is
produced.
 Cochran Boiler

Lancashire Boiler
 Locomotive boiler

Merits
1. Simple design and easy construction.
2. Low initial and maintenance costs.
3. Compact and portable.
4. Suitable for small power generation needs.
Demerits
1. Limited to low pressure (up to 25 bar).
2. Low steam generation rate.
3. Slow steam raising process.
4. Danger of explosion due to the large volume of water.
5. Water Tube Boilers
A Water Tube Boiler is a type of boiler in which water flows inside the tubes and the
hot flue gases flow outside the tubes. The heat from the gases is transferred to the water
inside the tubes, converting it into steam.
Construction of Water Tube Boiler
 Shell/Drum – A cylindrical vessel where steam is collected.
 Water Tubes – Small-diameter tubes in which water circulates.
 Furnace/Combustion Chamber – Where fuel is burnt to produce hot flue gases.
 Superheater – Heats the saturated steam to dry/superheated steam.
  Economizer – Preheats the feed water using exhaust gases.
 Air Preheater – Heats the incoming air for better combustion.
 Chimney – For removal of flue gases.

Working of a Water Tube Boiler

1. Fuel Combustion
o Fuel is burnt in the furnace, producing hot flue gases.
2. Heat Transfer
o The hot gases flow outside the water tubes.
o Water circulates inside the tubes (due to density difference or pumps).
3. Steam Formation
o Heat from gases transfers through the tube walls → water gets heated → steam
is formed inside the tubes.
o The steam-water mixture rises to the steam drum, where steam is separated.
4. Steam Supply
o The steam is further passed through a superheater to increase its temperature.
o Finally, dry/superheated steam is supplied through the steam stop valve for use.

✅Principle: Hot gases flow outside the tubes, water flows inside → water absorbs heat →
steam is produced.
Examples
 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler (horizontal, high pressure)
The Babcock & Wilcox boiler is a water tube, horizontal, externally fired, natural
circulation boiler. It is widely used for producing high-pressure steam in power plants
and industries.
Construction

 Water Tubes – Inclined tubes in which water flows.

 Drum – A Large cylindrical vessel at the top where steam is collected.
 Header – Connects the water tubes with the drum.
 Furnace – Located below the tubes, where coal is burnt.
 Superheater, Economizer, Air Preheater – Improve efficiency (optional
attachments).
 Chimney – Removes exhaust gases.

Babcock and Wilcox boiler

Working
 Coal is burnt in the furnace, producing hot flue gases.
 These hot gases flow over the water tubes, heating the water inside.
 Water inside tubes converts into a steam-water mixture, which rises into the drum.
 Steam is separated from water in the drum; dry steam is collected.
 This steam is passed through a superheater (if provided) to increase the temperature.
 Finally, the steam is supplied through the steam stop valve for use, while flue gases
escape via the chimney.
 ✅ Principle: Hot gases pass outside water tubes, water flows inside → heat
transfer occurs → steam is generated.
 La-Mont Boiler (forced circulation)
 Benson Boiler (supercritical boiler)
Merits

1. High working pressure (up to 250 bar).

2. Large steam generation capacity.
3. High efficiency due to better heat transfer.
4. Faster steam generation.
5. Safer (less water content inside tubes).
Demerits
1. More complex design.
2. Expensive to manufacture and install.
3. Requires skilled operators.

Comparison between fire tube and water tube boiler

Feature Fire Tube Boiler Water Tube Boiler

Contents in Tube Hot gases Water

Position of Water Outside the tubes Inside the tubes

Working Pressure Up to 25 bar Up to 250 bar

Steam Capacity Low Very high

Efficiency Low High

Initial Cost Low High

Explosion Risk High (more stored water) Low

Suitability Small industries, locomotives Power plants, large industries

Boiler Mountings and Accessories

A boiler needs some essential fittings for safe operation (called mountings) and some additional
fittings for efficient working (called accessories).
🔹 Boiler Mountings (Essential for Safety & Control)

These are the mandatory devices fitted on a boiler to ensure its safe operation. Without them,
a boiler cannot be operated.
Examples of Mountings:
1. Safety Valve

o Prevents excessive pressure inside the boiler.

o Opens automatically when boiler pressure exceeds the safe limit.
2. Water Level Indicator
o Shows the water level inside the boiler drum.
o Helps the operator maintain the correct water level to avoid overheating or
bursting.
3. Pressure Gauge
o Indicates the steam pressure inside the boiler.
o Helps in keeping the boiler pressure within the safe operating range.
4. Steam Stop Valve
o Controls the flow of steam from the boiler to the steam pipe.
5. Blow-off Cock
o Used to remove sediments, scale, and impurities from the water space.
o Also helps in emptying the boiler for cleaning or inspection.
6. Feed Check Valve
o Regulates the supply of water into the boiler.
o Prevents backflow of water/steam into the feed pump.
7. Fusible Plug
o A safety device that melts when the water level falls too low.
o Extinguishes the fire in the furnace to prevent boiler damage.

🔹 Boiler Accessories (For Efficiency & Performance)

These are optional devices, fitted to increase the efficiency and performance of the boiler. They
are not essential for operation, but they save fuel and improve steam quality.
Examples of Accessories:
 1. Economizer

o A device used to preheat the feed water by utilizing hot flue gases.
o Saves fuel and improves efficiency.
2. Superheater
o Heats the saturated steam from the boiler to a higher temperature (superheated
steam).
o Increases the efficiency of steam engines and turbines.
3. Air Preheater
o Preheats the air before it enters the furnace using waste flue gases.
o Ensures better combustion and fuel economy.
4. Steam Separator
o Removes water particles from steam, providing dry steam.
o Essential for turbines and other equipment.
5. Steam Trap
o Automatically removes condensed water from steam pipes without losing live
steam.

6. Injector
o Uses steam pressure to force feed water into the boiler.
o Simple device, often used in small boilers.

✅ In summary:

 Mountings = Safety + Control (compulsory)

 Accessories = Efficiency + Performance (optional but useful)
Questions

Fire Tube Boiler

1. Define a fire tube boiler and explain its working principle with a neat diagram.
2. Write the constructional features of a fire tube boiler.
3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a fire tube boiler.
4. Compare the working of a fire tube boiler with a water tube boiler.
5. Why is the fire tube boiler more suitable for low and medium-steam capacity
applications?

Cochran Boiler & Lancashire Boiler

1. Describe the construction and working of a Cochran boiler with a neat sketch.
2. Explain the construction and working principle of a Lancashire boiler with a diagram.
3. Compare the Cochran boiler and Lancashire boiler based on design, working, and
applications.
4. Why is the Cochran boiler classified as a vertical fire tube boiler, while the Lancashire
boiler is horizontal?
5. Write the merits and demerits of Cochran and Lancashire boilers.

Boiler Mountings and Accessories

1. Define boiler mountings and accessories. Differentiate between the two with examples.
2. Explain the function of a safety valve, fusible plug, and blow-off cock in a boiler.
3. Write a short note on economizer, superheater, and air preheater.
4. Why are boiler mountings considered essential for the safe operation of boilers?
5. Discuss the role of accessories in improving boiler efficiency with suitable examples.
Water Tube Boiler
1. Define a water tube boiler and explain its working principle with a neat sketch.
2. Describe the construction and working of a Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
3. Compare fire tube boilers and water tube boilers based on construction, working,
efficiency, and applications.
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of water tube boilers?
5. Explain why water tube boilers are preferred for high-pressure and high-capacity steam
generation.
Chapter: Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

1. Introduction
Refrigeration and air conditioning are two vital branches of thermal engineering that deal with
the production and maintenance of low temperatures, as well as the control of air properties for
both comfort and industrial applications.
 Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from a body or space to lower its
temperature below the surrounding temperature.
 Air Conditioning is the simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, air movement,
and air purity in an enclosed space.
Both systems are widely used in domestic, commercial, and industrial fields such as food
preservation, cold storage, chemical processes, comfort cooling, and industrial conditioning.
2. Principles of Refrigeration
Refrigeration is based on the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states that heat cannot
flow from a colder body to a hotter body without external aid.
Thus, to transfer heat from a cold space to a hot surrounding, a refrigerating machine or system
is required.
The two major systems used are:

1. Vapor Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)

2. Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System (VARS)

3. Vapor Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)

3.1 Construction
The vapor compression system consists of four main components connected in a closed loop:
1. Compressor
o Draws in low-pressure vapor from the evaporator.
o Compresses it to high pressure and temperature.
o Usually, a reciprocating or rotary type.
2. Condenser
o Rejects heat from high-pressure vapor to the surroundings.
o The refrigerant vapor condenses into high-pressure liquid.
o Types: Air-cooled, Water-cooled.

3. Expansion Valve (Throttle Valve)

 o Reduces the pressure of the liquid refrigerant suddenly.
o Converts high-pressure liquid into a low-pressure liquid-vapor mixture.
4. Evaporator
o Absorbs heat from the refrigerated space.

o The low-pressure refrigerant evaporates into vapor by absorbing latent heat.

Auxiliary parts: filter drier, pressure gauges, sight glass, etc.
3.2 Working Principle
The cycle works as follows:

1. Compression

o Low-pressure vapor from the evaporator is compressed to high pressure and

high temperature in the compressor.
2. Condensation
o The high-pressure vapor passes through the condenser.
o Heat is rejected to the surrounding air or water, and vapor condenses into liquid.
3. Expansion
o The high-pressure liquid enters the expansion valve.
o Sudden pressure drop converts it into a low-pressure, low-temperature mixture.
4. Evaporation
o This mixture enters the evaporator, where it absorbs heat from the refrigerated
space.
 o Refrigerant vaporizes completely and returns to the compressor.

Thus, the cycle repeats continuously, maintaining a low temperature.

3.3 Advantages
 Higher COP (Coefficient of Performance).
 Compact size and widely used.
 Can produce very low temperatures.
3.4 Disadvantages
 Requires mechanical compressor (high power consumption).
 Noise and vibrations may occur.
 Not suitable where waste heat is easily available.

4. Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System (VARS)

4.1 Construction
This system replaces the mechanical compressor with an absorber, pump, and generator.
It consists of:
1. Evaporator – Same function as VCRS.

2. Absorber – Absorbs refrigerant vapor (e.g., ammonia) into an absorbent (e.g., water).
3. Pump – Pumps the strong solution (ammonia + water) to the generator.
4. Generator – Uses external heat (steam, solar, waste heat) to separate ammonia vapor
from water.
5. Condenser – Condenses ammonia vapor into liquid.
6. Expansion Valve – Same function as VCRS.
4.2 Working Principle
 1. In the evaporator, ammonia absorbs heat from the refrigerated space and vaporizes.
2. The absorber absorbs ammonia vapor into water, forming a strong solution.
3. This solution is pumped to the generator, where heat separates ammonia from water.

4. Ammonia vapor moves to the condenser, where it rejects heat and becomes liquid.
5. The liquid passes through the expansion valve, reducing pressure.
6. Low-pressure liquid enters the evaporator, where it again absorbs heat, repeating the
cycle.
4.3 Advantages
 Can operate using low-grade heat (solar, exhaust gases, steam).
 Fewer moving parts → less maintenance.
 Quiet operation.
4.4 Disadvantages
 Lower COP compared to VCRS.
 Bulky and costly.
 Slow response to load changes.
Difference between a vapor compression and a vapor absorption refrigeration system

Feature VCRS VARS

Driving force Mechanical compressor Heat source

COP High (3–6) Low (0.5–2)

Size Compact Bulky

Moving parts More Fewer

 Power requirement Electrical energy Thermal energy

Applications Domestic refrigeration, AC Large industrial

refrigeration, absorption
chillers

Air Conditioning
6.1 Definition
Air conditioning is the process of treating air to control its temperature, humidity, air purity,
and circulation to provide comfort or meet industrial requirements.
6.2 Elements of Air Conditioning
1. Temperature Control – Heating or cooling of air.
2. Humidity Control – Humidification or dehumidification.

3. Air Purification – Removal of dust, smoke, and odors.

4. Air Circulation – Proper distribution of air.

6.3 Types of Air Conditioning

1. Comfort Air Conditioning – For human comfort (homes, offices, theaters).
2. Industrial Air Conditioning – For processes (textile mills, electronic industries).
3. Automobile Air Conditioning – For vehicles.
6.4 Construction and Components
A basic air conditioning system consists of:
 Compressor – Circulates refrigerant.
 Condenser – Rejects heat to the atmosphere.
 Receiver & Expansion Valve – Controls refrigerant flow.
 Evaporator Coil – Absorbs heat from room air.
 Air Filter & Blower – Cleans and circulates air.
 Duct System – Distributes conditioned air.
6.5 Working Principle

1. Warm air from the room is drawn into the unit.

2. It passes over the evaporator coil, where refrigerant absorbs heat and cools the air.
 3. Moisture condenses on the coil → dehumidification.

4. The cooled and dehumidified air is filtered and blown back into the room.
5. Refrigerant cycle (compression, condensation, expansion, evaporation) continues.

6.6 Applications
 Residential cooling & heating.
 Office buildings, malls, theaters.
 Hospitals (temperature & humidity control).
 Industrial processes (textiles, electronics, pharmaceuticals).
7. Summary
 Refrigeration is the removal of heat to maintain a lower temperature.
 The Vapor Compression System uses a compressor and is widely used for domestic
refrigeration and AC.
 The Vapor Absorption System uses heat energy instead of mechanical work, suitable
for industrial applications.
 Air Conditioning is the treatment of air for comfort and industrial needs.
Questions

Vapor Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)

1. Explain with a neat sketch the construction and working of a vapor compression
refrigeration system.
2. Draw and describe the p-h (pressure-enthalpy) diagram of VCRS.
3. What are the four main components of a vapor compression system? Explain their
functions.
4. Compare the air refrigeration system with the vapor compression refrigeration system.
5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of VCRS.
Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System (VARS)
6. Explain the construction and working principle of a vapor absorption refrigeration
system.
7. Differentiate between VCRS and VARS (at least five points).
8. Why are an absorber, a generator, and a pump used in VARS instead of a compressor?
9. State the advantages, disadvantages, and applications of vapor absorption systems.
10. Explain the role of ammonia, water, and lithium bromide as working fluids in
absorption refrigeration.

Air Conditioning
11. Define air conditioning. What are the essential requirements of a good air conditioning
system?
12. Describe the construction and working of a simple air conditioning system with a neat
diagram.
13. Explain the difference between comfort air conditioning and industrial air conditioning.
14. What are the functions of filters, blowers, and duct systems in AC?
15. Discuss the applications of air conditioning in domestic, commercial, and industrial
fields.
Chapter: Engineering Materials and Their Properties

1. Introduction
Engineering materials are the backbone of engineering design and manufacturing. The
performance, durability, and efficiency of machines, structures, and products depend largely
on the selection of suitable materials.
Materials are chosen based on their mechanical, physical, chemical, and economic properties.
Among the vast range of materials, metals and their alloys are the most widely used in
engineering applications. Metals are broadly classified into ferrous and non-ferrous categories.
2. Classification of Engineering Materials
1. Metals
o Ferrous Metals (contain iron as the main constituent)
o Non-Ferrous Metals (do not contain iron)
2. Non-Metals
o Polymers, Ceramics, Composites, etc.
In this chapter, we will mainly discuss Ferrous and Non-Ferrous metals and their properties.

Stress- strain curve for ductile material

. Elastic Region (O–E)

 Stress is directly proportional to strain (Hooke’s Law).
 Deformation is temporary → material regains original shape after load removal.
  Point E = Elastic limit.

2. Yield Point (F)

 Just beyond elastic limit.
 Permanent deformation starts here.
 The material begins to elongate without significant increase in stress.
3. Plastic Region (E–UTS)
 Stress increases with strain, but deformation is permanent.
 The material undergoes work hardening (becomes stronger but less ductile).
4. Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)
 Highest point on the curve.
 Represents the maximum stress the material can resist.
 Beyond this, the material weakens.
5. Necking and Fracture
 After UTS, localized reduction in cross-sectional area (necking) occurs.
 Stress falls until the material finally fractures.

✅ In summary:

 Elastic region → Temporary deformation.

 Yield point → Start of permanent deformation.
 UTS → Maximum strength.
 Fracture → Failure after necking.

Stress- strain curve for brittle material

Initial Linear Portion (Elastic Region):
 The curve starts with a straight line, showing that stress is directly proportional to strain
(Hooke’s law).
 The material deforms elastically, meaning it will return to its original shape if the load
is removed.
Ultimate Strength:
 The curve rises steeply until it reaches the maximum stress the material can withstand.
 This is called the Ultimate Stress/Strength.
 Initial Linear Portion (Elastic Region):
 The curve starts with a straight line, showing that stress is directly proportional to strain
(Hooke’s law).
 The material deforms elastically, meaning it will return to its original shape if the load
is removed.
Ultimate Strength:
 The curve rises steeply until it reaches the maximum stress the material can withstand.
 This is called the Ultimate Stress/Strength.
Fracture Point:

 Immediately after reaching ultimate strength, the material fractures suddenly without
significant plastic deformation.
 Brittle materials (like glass, cast iron, ceramics) do not show a yield point or large
elongation before breaking.
3. Mechanical Properties of Materials
The mechanical properties of a material determine how it responds to external forces and
conditions. Some important properties include:
1. Strength
o Ability of a material to resist applied load without failure.
o Types: Tensile strength, Compressive strength, Shear strength.
2. Hardness
o Resistance to wear, abrasion, or indentation.
o Measured by Brinell, Rockwell, or Vickers tests.
3. Resilience
 o Ability of a material to absorb energy and release it upon unloading (spring
action).
4. Toughness
o Ability to absorb energy before fracture.
o Combination of strength and ductility.
5. Ductility
o Ability to be drawn into thin wires without fracture.
6. Malleability
o Ability to be hammered or rolled into thin sheets.
7. Elasticity
o Ability to regain original shape after removal of load.
8. Plasticity
o Ability to undergo permanent deformation without rupture.
9. Creep
o Slow and permanent deformation under constant stress at high temperature.
10. Fatigue Strength
o Ability to withstand repeated cyclic loading without failure.

4. Ferrous Metals
Ferrous metals are those in which iron (Fe) is the primary constituent. They are strong, durable,
and economical, making them the most widely used engineering materials.
4.1 Types of Ferrous Metals
1. Cast Iron
o Contains 2–4% carbon, silicon, and impurities.
o Types: Grey cast iron, White cast iron, Malleable cast iron, Nodular cast iron.
o Properties:
 High compressive strength.
 Good machinability (grey CI).
 Brittle in nature.
 Good damping capacity.
o Applications: Engine blocks, machine beds, pipes, manhole covers.
 2. Wrought Iron

o Nearly pure iron (<0.1% carbon).

o Properties:
 Soft, ductile, and tough.
 High corrosion resistance.
 Cannot be hardened by heat treatment.
o Applications: Chains, hooks, gates, railings.
3. Steel
o Iron–carbon alloy with 0.1–1.5% carbon.
o Types:
 Low-carbon steel (mild steel)
 Medium-carbon steel
 High-carbon steel
o Properties:
 High tensile strength.
 Good machinability and weldability.
 Can be heat-treated for desired properties.
o Applications: Structural components, tools, machinery, automobiles.
4. Alloy Steels
o Steel with additional alloying elements (Cr, Ni, Mo, V, W, Mn).
o Examples and Uses:
 Stainless steel (Cr, Ni) → corrosion-resistant, used in utensils, medical
instruments.
 High-speed steel (W, Mo, V) → cutting tools.
 Nickel-chromium steel → gears, shafts.
5. Non-Ferrous Metals
Non-ferrous metals are those that do not contain iron as the main constituent. They are
generally lighter, corrosion-resistant, and more expensive than ferrous metals.
5.1 Types of Non-Ferrous Metals
1. Aluminium (Al)
 o Lightweight, good conductor of heat and electricity, corrosion-resistant.

o Ductile and malleable.

o Applications: Aircraft bodies, kitchen utensils, transmission lines.
2. Copper (Cu)
o Excellent electrical and thermal conductivity.
o Corrosion-resistant, ductile.
o Applications: Electrical wires, coils, heat exchangers.
3. Zinc (Zn)
o Moderate strength, corrosion-resistant.
o Used as a protective coating (galvanization).
o Applications: Roofing sheets, galvanized steel.
4. Tin (Sn)
o Soft, malleable, corrosion-resistant.
o Applications: Tin plating, alloys like bronze.
5. Nickel (Ni)
o Tough, ductile, corrosion and heat resistant.
o Applications: Stainless steel, plating, coins.
6. Magnesium (Mg)
o Very light, good strength-to-weight ratio.
o Applications: Aerospace components, fireworks.
7. Lead (Pb)
o Heavy, soft, corrosion-resistant, toxic.
o Applications: Batteries, radiation shielding, pipes.
8. Alloys of Non-Ferrous Metals
o Brass (Cu + Zn): corrosion-resistant, used in valves, fittings, and decorative
items.
o Bronze (Cu + Sn): strong, wear-resistant, used in bearings, coins, and statues.
o Duralumin (Al + Cu + Mn): strong and lightweight, used in aircraft.

Feature Ferrous Metals Non-Ferrous Metals

 Main element Iron No iron

Strength High Moderate

Weight Generally heavy Lightweight

Corrosion resistance Poor (unless alloyed) Good

Cost Cheaper Expensive

Examples Cast iron, Steel, Wrought iron Al, Cu, Zn, Brass, Bronze

Selection of Engineering Materials

While selecting materials for engineering applications, the following factors are considered:
 Mechanical properties (strength, hardness, ductility, toughness).
 Physical properties (density, conductivity, melting point).
 Chemical properties (corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance).
 Availability and cost.

 Manufacturing process requirements (machinability, weldability).

8. Applications of Engineering Materials
 Ferrous metals: Structural parts, tools, automotive components, heavy machinery.
 Non-ferrous metals: Electrical equipment, aerospace, decorative applications,
lightweight structures.
9. Summary
 Engineering materials are broadly classified into ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
 Mechanical properties like strength, hardness, ductility, toughness, and resilience
govern their applications.
 Ferrous metals are strong, cheap, and widely used (e.g., cast iron, steel).
 Non-ferrous metals are lightweight, corrosion-resistant, but costly (e.g., aluminium,
copper, brass).
 Proper selection of materials ensures safety, durability, and efficiency of engineering
products.
Questions
A. Mechanical Properties of Materials
1. Define the strength of a material. Explain its different types with examples.
2. Explain the stress-strain diagram and describe elastic and plastic regions.
3. What is hardness? Explain different hardness testing methods (Brinell, Rockwell,
Vickers).
4. Differentiate between ductility and malleability with examples.
5. Write short notes on creep and fatigue in materials with suitable examples.

🔹 B. Ferrous Metals

6. What are ferrous metals? List their main types.

7. Describe the properties and applications of cast iron.
8. Differentiate between wrought iron, cast iron, and steel.
9. Explain the classification of steels based on carbon content.
10. Write a note on alloy steels and their industrial applications.

🔹 C. Non-Ferrous Metals

11. What are non-ferrous metals? Give examples and general characteristics.
12. Write the properties and uses of aluminium and its alloys.
13. Explain the properties and applications of copper, brass, and bronze.
14. Write a note on nickel and its alloys (Monel, Inconel, stainless steel).
15. Compare ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals in terms of properties and applications.
Chapter: Heat Treatment of Steel

1. Introduction to Heat Treatment

Heat treatment is a controlled process of heating and cooling metals in the solid state to alter
their physical and mechanical properties without changing their chemical composition.
For steel, heat treatment is critical because it enhances properties such as:
 Hardness
 Strength
 Ductility
 Toughness
 Wear resistance
Different heat treatment processes are applied depending on the intended application of steel
in construction, tools, machinery, and engineering components.
2. Objectives of Heat Treatment of Steel
 Improve machinability (easier to cut, drill, shape).

 Refine grain structure for uniformity.

 Increase hardness for tools and dies.
 Improve toughness and ductility for structural parts.
 Relieve internal stresses caused by welding, forging, and casting.
 Enhance wear resistance and surface hardness.
3. Major Heat Treatment Processes
3.1 Annealing
Definition:
Annealing is a heat treatment process in which steel is heated to a suitable temperature, held
there for a specified time, and then cooled slowly, typically in a furnace.
Purpose of Annealing:
 To refine grain structure.
 To relieve internal stresses.
 To soften steel and improve machinability.
 To improve ductility and toughness.
Process Steps:
1. Heat steel to about 30–50°C above its critical temperature (generally 750–900°C
depending on composition).
2. Hold (soak) at that temperature for sufficient time.

3. Cool slowly inside the furnace (furnace cooling).

Result:
Soft steel with good ductility, machinability, and refined grains.
3.2 Quenching
Definition:
Quenching is a process of heating steel to its critical temperature and then cooling it rapidly in
a medium such as water, oil, or brine.
Purpose of Quenching:
 To produce hard and strong steel.
 To increase wear resistance.
Process Steps:
1. Heat the steel above the critical point (about 800–900°C).
2. Hold it to allow transformation into austenite.
3. Cool rapidly in a quenching medium (water/oil).
Result:

 Formation of martensite (hard but brittle structure).

 High hardness but reduced toughness.
3.3 Tempering
Definition:
Tempering is the process of reheating quenched steel (which is hard and brittle) to a
temperature below the critical point (150–700°C) and then cooling at a moderate rate.
Purpose of Tempering:
 Reduce brittleness of quenched steel.
 Improve toughness and ductility.
 Relieve internal stresses from quenching.
Process Steps:
1. Quench the steel (to harden it).
2. Reheat to a suitable tempering temperature depending on the required properties:
 o Low temp (150–250°C): High hardness, low toughness (used for cutting tools).
o Medium temp (250–500°C): Balanced hardness and toughness (used for
springs, knives).
o High temp (500–700°C): Low hardness, high toughness (used for structural
steel parts).
3. Cool in air, water, or oil.

Result:
Tough and strong steel with reduced brittleness.
3.4 Case Hardening (Surface Hardening)

Definition:
Case hardening is a process where the surface of steel is hardened while the core remains soft
and ductile.
Process of case hardening
 Steel Component → Base material to be hardened.
 Heating in Carbon-rich Environment → The steel is heated in a furnace with carbon-
rich substances (like charcoal or gas).
 Carbon Diffusion → Carbon atoms diffuse into the surface layer of the steel.
 Quenching → The heated steel is rapidly cooled (usually in water or oil).
 Final Product → Hard surface (wear-resistant) with a tough inner core (impact-
resistant).
Purpose of Case Hardening:
 To give a hard, wear-resistant surface.
 To retain a tough core for shock resistance.
Types of Case Hardening:
1. Carburizing: Adding carbon to the surface by heating steel in a carbon-rich medium
(solid, liquid, or gas).
2. Nitriding: Adding nitrogen to the surface by heating in ammonia gas.
3. Cyaniding: Adding both carbon and nitrogen by immersing steel in a molten cyanide
salt bath.
4. Flame or Induction Hardening: Surface is heated quickly using flame or induction
coil, followed by quenching.

Result:
Steel with a hard outer case for wear resistance and a soft inner core for toughness.

Process Cooling Rate Properties Obtained Applications

Annealing Slow (furnace) Soft, ductile, stress-free Sheet metal, forgings

Quenching Rapid (water/oil) Very hard, brittle Tools, dies

Tempering Moderate Tough, less brittle, strong Springs, shafts

Case Hardening Surface rapid cooling Hard surface, tough core Gears, bearings, cams

Applications in Engineering
 Annealing: Pipes, sheets, wires (for machining and forming).
 Quenching: Cutting tools, dies, drills.
  Tempering: Automotive parts, springs, crankshafts.

 Case Hardening: Gears, bearings, camshafts, machine parts requiring wear

resistance.

Questions
Conceptual / Short Answer Type
1. Define heat treatment of steel. Why is it necessary?
2. Differentiate between annealing and normalizing.
3. What is the purpose of quenching in steel heat treatment?
4. Explain the difference between hardening and tempering.
5. What are the applications of case hardening?
6. Why is tempering always done after hardening?
7. Which property of steel improves the most by annealing?
8. Mention the quenching media commonly used and their effects.
9. Explain the importance of critical temperature in heat treatment.
10. Name at least three industrial components treated by case hardening.
Descriptive / Long Answer Type

11. Explain the construction and working principle of the annealing process with a neat
diagram.
12. Describe the hardening process in detail with its advantages and limitations.
13. Discuss the tempering process with its types (low, medium, and high temperature
tempering) and applications.
14. Write a note on case hardening techniques (carburizing, nitriding, cyaniding, etc.).
15. Compare the mechanical properties of steel before and after each heat treatment
process (annealing, quenching, tempering, case hardening).
Chapter: Prime Movers
1. Introduction to Prime Movers
A prime mover is a machine that converts natural energy into mechanical power.
Examples: Steam Turbines, Gas Turbines, and Internal Combustion Engines.

2. Steam Turbine
2.1 Description
A machine that converts the thermal energy of steam into mechanical work.
Commonly used in thermal power stations.
2.2 Construction (with diagram)
 Casing – houses the turbine.
 Rotor & Shaft – rotating part carrying blades.
 Blades – fixed & moving, guide steam.
 Nozzle – directs high-velocity steam jets.
2.3 Working Principle
1. High-pressure steam enters through nozzles.
2. Steam jet strikes blades → rotor rotates.
3. Shaft delivers mechanical power.

👉 Principle: Conversion of steam’s pressure energy → kinetic energy → mechanical

energy.
3. Gas Turbine
3.1 Description
A turbine that uses compressed air + fuel combustion to produce high-energy gases, which
rotate the turbine.
3.2 Construction (with diagram)
 Compressor – compresses air.
 Combustion Chamber – burns fuel with compressed air.
 Turbine Blades – expand gases, rotate shaft.

 Exhaust – releases gases.

3.3 Working Principle
1. Air compressed in a compressor.
2. Fuel injected & burnt → hot gases generated.
3. Gases expand over the turbine blades, rotating the shaft.

👉 Principle: Conversion of chemical energy of fuel → kinetic energy of gases →

mechanical energy.

4. Internal Combustion Engine (IC Engine)

4.1 Description
Here, fuel burns inside the cylinder to directly produce mechanical work.
Examples: Petrol & Diesel engines.
4.2 Construction (with diagram)
 Cylinder & Piston – combustion chamber.
 Crankshaft – converts piston motion into rotation.
  Valves – control fuel-air entry and exhaust exit.
 Fuel system – carburettor/injector.
 Cooling & lubrication – maintain efficiency.

4.3 Working Principle

1. Fuel-air mixture (petrol) / air only (diesel) enters the cylinder.
2. Piston compresses → fuel burns inside the cylinder.
3. Expansion of gases pushes the piston down.
4. Piston → crankshaft → rotary motion.
👉 Principle: Chemical energy of fuel → heat energy → mechanical energy.

Prime Mover Working Fluid Energy Conversion Application

Steam Turbine Steam Heat → Mechanical Power plants, ships

Gas Turbine Hot gases Heat → Mechanical Aircraft, marine

IC Engine Fuel + air Direct Heat → Mech Automobiles, genset

6. Applications
 Steam turbines → Power stations, marine propulsion.

 Gas turbines → Aircraft engines, power plants.

 IC engines → Cars, bikes, trucks, small power generators.