Energy 333 (2025) 137500

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: [Link]/locate/energy

Eco-design of emerging BIPV modules based on LCA and LCC

Le Quyen Luu * , Maurizio Cellura , Francesco Guarino , Sonia Longo
Department of Engineering, University of Palermo, Viale Delle Scienze, Edificio 9, Palermo, 90128, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The decarbonization of energy sector requires the substantial contribution of solar photovoltaics (PV), with
Solar PV increasing energy efficiency, feasible production cost while minimizing the environmental impacts. This paper
BIPV suggests eco-design measures for the innovative building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) modules by applying
Eco-design
life cycle thinking approach. The environmental impacts and costs of BIPV modules based on silicon and
LCA
Perovskite solar cells
perovskite solar cells are quantified and evaluated according to the ISO14040 and ISO14044 standards, the
Emerging solar technology guidelines of International Energy Agency for life cycle assessment (LCA) on solar PV and the Product Envi­
ronmental Footprint of the European Commission. All the environmental impacts of the BIPV modules are
quantified from cradle to grave per 1 kWh of electricity. The same functional unit is applied for life cycle costs,
with consideration of manufacturing costs only. Climate change impact of BIPV modules ranges from 2.31E-02
kgCO2e to 6.83E-01 kgCO2e per kWh of electricity, depending on their transmittance, materials of the solar cells
and end-of-life management strategies. Fossil resource use varies between 2.74E-01 MJ and 1.05E+01 MJ, and
mineral and metal resource use is from 1.63E-06 kg Sb eq to 1.14E-04 kg Sb eq per kWh. Besides, levelized cost of
electricity generated from BIPV modules ranges from 0.01 EUR to 3 EUR per kWh. The environmental impact
and cost assessments of BIPV modules indicate that the eco-design need to improve the efficiency and lifetime of
perovskite materials and reduce the cost for cell fabrication, so that they can compete with silicon based BIPV
modules.

1. Introduction energy use have been proposed, such as energy efficiency in buildings (i.
e. using less energy for building operation for the same performance).
The energy sector is among the main sources of greenhouse gas For an example, Naghipour and Naghipour optimized the energy con­
(GHG) emissions. It contributes to about three quarters of GHG emis­ sumption in buildings by proper selection of building aspect ratio and
sions in the European Union [1], in which 34 % of the GHG emissions of orientation, consequently reducing carbon emissions [5]). Other mea­
energy use originates from building sector [2]. To aim at the decar­ sures include renewable energy generation (e.g. building integrated PV
bonization of energy sector and the net zero, the deployment of solar (BIPV), solar thermal collectors), energy storage and flexibility (e.g.
energy technologies, including solar photovoltaics (PV) and concen­ smart control, thermal storage system, vehicle batteries, etc.) and energy
trating solar power (CSP) should be swiftly increased. According to the sufficiency (i.e. optimized use of building) [6]. Among these measures,
net zero scenarios of the International Energy Agency (IEA), by 2050 the there is a significant potential for solar energy technologies to contribute
electricity generation from solar PV is expected to reach 23 thousand to the decarbonization of building sectors, by installing BIPV modules
TWh and CSP will contribute 1.3 thousand TWh [3]. These measures not [7]. They are commonly applied for generating renewable energy in
only reduce the GHG emissions but also bring other benefits on energy renewable energy communities and positive energy district, for exam­
gains and environmental impacts. For an example, bio-based phase ples in four positive energy districts in Norway [6], in the solar neigh­
change materials (PCMs) such as slurries of nano-enhanced coconut oil bourhood in Sweden [8], and in individual buildings [9].
and silver (or gold, aluminium and copper) used in thermal energy At the same time, solar energy technologies may cause other envi­
storage of solar systems bring higher useful heat gains, compared to pure ronmental impacts and depend on some metals and minerals, especially
water [4]. critical and strategic raw materials [10,11]. This is also a concern for
In the building sector, several decarbonization measures related to emerging solar technologies and BIPV modules based on innovative

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link] (L.Q. Luu).

[Link]
Received 10 March 2025; Received in revised form 4 July 2025; Accepted 8 July 2025
Available online 9 July 2025
0360-5442/© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
nc-nd/4.0/).
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

materials. Fortunately, more than 70 % of the environmental impacts absorber [29], PCM [30] and textile envelope integrated with flexible
such as the carbon footprint, raw material consumption as well as other PV [31].
environmental impacts of these emerging technologies can be estimated In term of LCA methodological choice, most of the studied chose the
since the designing process [12]. These impacts can be minimized functional units such as the system, m2 and year. Only two studies
through applying the eco-design approach, as a preventative method at calculated the environmental impacts per kWh of electricity. Besides,
the early stage during the design of the technologies in the laboratory. the most common indicators are either related to energy or GHG such as
Due to the importance of BIPV in contributing to the decarbonization cumulative energy demand, energy payback time, energy savings, global
of energy and building sectors, and the potential impacts of emerging warming potential (GWP), GHG emission reductions and GHG payback
BIPV modules on the environment, the study quantifies and assesses life time. Other environmental impacts such as metal depletion, toxicity
cycle environmental impacts and costs of BIPV. The study verifies BIPV attracted less attention and were assessed in six studies [26,27,30,
advantages of GHG emission reductions, while identifies the weakness 32–34]. The economic aspects of BIPV systems were studied in Refs. [26,
(if any) of the technologies in other life cycle environmental impacts, for 31,32].
example toxicity, material consumption and others. Besides, the eco­ In term of purpose of the studies, these LCA studies aimed at eco-
nomic aspects of the emerging BIPV modules are evaluated to support assessment of the technologies. Though some of these studies include
the sustainable development of the technologies. The life cycle approach a comparison among the several variants of BIPV modules, none of them
is selected as it covers all impacts of the technologies’ life cycle from raw proposed measures for eco-improvement of the technologies. As such,
material extraction, manufacturing, transportation, consumption and the paper contribution can be summarized as.
their end of life. At the same time, it is a common method for evaluating
sustainability in the built environment at both the building and district • Firstly, the LCA and LCC are conducted on BIPV modules based on
scale and relevant decarbonization measures applied in the building conventional materials and new materials, e.g. silicon and
sector [13,14]. For life cycle environmental impacts, the conventional perovskite.
life cycle assessment (LCA) method will be applied, while life cycle • Secondly, the study goes beyond the common indicators of energy
costing (LCC) will be used for the economic evaluation of BIPV. Based on demand and GHG emissions to cover all life cycle impacts.
the obtained LCA and LCC results, the paper will suggest eco-design • Lastly, by comparing the life cycle environmental impacts, and cost
measures for BIPV modules, with focus on the emerging BIPV modules of conventional and innovative BIPV, identify the hotspots during
based on silicon and perovskite solar cells. the life cycle of BIPV modules, the study does not limit in eco-
The technical features and environmental impacts of BIPV modules assessment, which is the common purpose of LCA application, but
have been intensively studied in the literature for the last decades. By also provides useful information for the eco-improvement of the
now, there are two reviews on the technical assessment and economic technology.
evaluation of photovoltaics and thermal systems, which cover the BIPV
modules [15,16]. Brahim and Jemmi described the photovoltaic thermal The key aspects of available LCA studies on BIPV modules are sum­
(PV/T) systems and considered their payback time, for examples energy marized in Table 1.
payback time, GHG payback time and some other economic indicators The paper will support the eco-design of innovative BIPV modules,
such as savings in fossil fuel energy usage, cost of investment and based on case study of life cycle environmental impacts and cost of BIPV.
maintenance [16]. Abdelrazik et al. provided the information on the The studied BIPV modules are silicon solar cells (SSC) and perovskite
recent advancement of PV/T system applied in buildings (BIPV/T) [15]. solar cells (PSC), which are currently studied and demonstrated in Italy
The authors gave some insights in the integration of the BIPV/T systems under the NEST Spoke 1 project (Network for Sustainable Energy
with other systems, such as heating, ventilation and air conditioning, Transition) on Solar PV and CSP/CST. Besides, the paper compared
and heat recovery systems, which bring the largest benefit in different transmittance, with corresponding power conversion efficiency
techno-economic performance, followed by the hybrid of BIPV/T and (PCE) of the cells and roof/façade installations, and end-of-life man­
PCM, and BIPV/T with concentrators. Unfortunately, these reviews do agement strategies such as disposal and recycle. Consequently, this LCA
not cover the life cycle environmental impacts of BIPV. and LCC study will support the further development of the BIPV panel
There are several case studies on the environmental impacts of BIPV. with considerations to their energy benefits, environmental profiles and
Many of those consider the technical, environmental, and economic feasible costs.
aspects without applying the life cycle approach. These case studies In the next section, the data and method will be described, followed
examined the installation configurations, sites, technologies of applying by the result section which presents the life cycle environmental impacts
solar PV on the walls of the buildings and rooftop of parking areas [17], with comparison among transmittance, materials of cells and end-of-life
the configuration of building and rooftop PV system [18], different treatment of panels, life cycle costs and levelized cost of electricity
materials for rooftop solar PV [19], combinations of BIPV/T and other (LCOE) generated by the BIPV panels, and eco-design measures for
systems such as proton exchange membrane [20], heat storage and PCM emerging BIPV modules. The paper ends with a summary of the main
[21], control process for battery BIPV [22], and combined system of results and insights into future research on the eco-design of BIPV in the
energy storage and rooftop PV [23]. The energy and environmental conclusion section.
benefits of these system were verified, with 21 % reduction in annual
energy demand for cooling and heat [18], 3.45 % reduction in total 2. Data and method
energy consumption [23], and carbon emission reduction [17,20–22].
By now, there are 15 case studies applying LCA or LCC on BIPV LCA is a well-developed method, with the first international guide­
system. These current studies share three common patterns: lines for conducting LCA studies dated back to 1997 [39]. It quantifies
In term of technologies, most of the studied BIPV modules are based and evaluates the environmental impacts of product or service from the
on silicon material, with two studies covering conventional thin-film, raw material extraction for making the product till the end of its life
non-silicon materials such as CIGS and CdTe [24,25]. The most recent [40]. LCA covers the complete life cycle of a product, therefore the
study covers the BIPV modules based on new materials such as perov­ application of LCA helps to avoid the burden shifting or transferring the
skite [26], but the effort on this new material is limited. There were impacts from one stage during the life cycle to another stage. With LCA,
several efforts for integrating new designs of BIPV modules into the LCA all the environmental impacts are taken into consideration, which
studies, which covers the structure of the systems such as dynamic or avoids neglecting of any uncommon impact categories, or missing of any
adaptive façade [27], combined solar cells with other heat relevant indirect impacts. These two features of LCA make it a holistic method
materials or technologies such as heat recovery unit [28], aluminium and a fitting tool for eco-assessment. Besides, by conducting

2
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

Table 1 The ISO14040 and ISO14044 standards [42,43], for conducting an

Key aspects of LCA based eco-design guidelines in the literature. LCA study, with four steps of goal and scope definition, inventory
Paper Technology Functional Indicator analysis, impact assessment and interpretation will be followed. During
unit the first step, the goal and scope need to be defined, providing such
[30] Multi-crystalline silicon m2 18 midpoint impact information as the goal of the study, intended applications of the study,
(mc-Si) BIPV with and categories of ReCiPe product system, function and functional unit, system boundary, data
without phase change requirement, allocation rule, assumptions and life cycle impact assess­
material ment method. The second step relates to life cycle inventory analysis,
[35] mc-Si BIPV system Energy and GHG indicators
[28] Crystalline (c-Si) and system Energy indicators
which is an iterative process consisting of three sub-steps: collecting
amorphous (a-Si) BIPV data, calculating data and determining reference flows and emissions.
with heat recovery unit Life cycle impact assessment is the third step, aiming at understanding
[29] Free standing and m2, system Energy and GHG indicators and estimating the size and significance of the potential environmental
building integrated PV/ and year
impacts of a product system over the life of the product. It consists of two
thermal (BIPV/T)
[33] Building integrated system 11 indicators of Eco- compulsory sub-steps: classification and characterization, and some
concentrated PV (BICPV) Indicator 99 and EPS 2000 optional sub-steps: normalization, weighting and grouping. The final
with single-crystalline (Environmental Priority step is interpretation which presents the results of the inventory analysis
(sc-Si) PV Strategies) and the life cycle impacts. During this step, dominance analysis, hotspot
[24] Hybrid PV/T façade not available Energy and GHG indicators
based on silicon and non- (n/a)
identification, uncertainty analysis and sensitivity analysis may be
silicon performed to further understand the obtained results and evaluate the
[36] Dielectric based BICPV kWh Energy and GHG indicators effects of the most important assumptions and selected methods.
[27] Adaptive BIPV facade kWh and Six major midpoint impact Besides, the study refers to the guidelines of IEA for LCA on solar PV
system indicators of ReCiPe
[44,45] and Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) of the European
[25] mc-Si, a-Si and CIGS m2 Carrying capacity
BIPV Commission [46]. For LCC, the method is based on cost and benefit
[37] sc-Si BIPV kW and kWh One endpoint indicator of analysis [47]. The specific methods applied on BIPV will be further
ReCiPe and GHG described in the following sub-sections.
[32] Semi- transparent BIPV n/a Energy, GHG and six other
window environmental impacts of
Chinese abiotic resource
2.1. Technology description
depletion, CML 2002 and
IMPACT 2002+ The studied BIPV module is a glass-glass PV module, being suitable
[31] Textile envelope m2 GHG and cost for building integration. Each of the glass layer is 4 mm thick, and the
integrated flexible PV
total thickness of the module is 9.8 mm. The PV module is 72 mono­
and PV glazing sunshade
[26] c-Si and perovskite BIPV, kWh Cost, GHG emissions, CED, crystalline silicon type, with cell dimension of 156 x 156 mm. The power
slanted roof and façade fossil depletion and other of module is 315 Wp. The module dimension is 1.998 m2 (1325 mm x
impacts of ILCD 1508 mm), with the total weight of 55.02 kg. This module lasts around
(International Reference Life 25 years. The BIPV module is currently studied and demonstrated in
Cycle Data System)
[38] mc-Si BIPV kWh Energy and GHG indicators
Bolzano, under the NEST Spoke 1 project. Similar modules are installed
[34] Floating, bifacial ground kWh 15 indicators of PEF (Product in Firenze, with the installed capacity of 17.5 kWp for both roof and
mounted, BIPV and Environmental Footprint) window installations. The examples of roof and window installations of
conventional PV except for ecotoxicity the studied modules are illustrated in Fig. 1.

2.2. Goal and scope definition: functional unit and system boundary
comparative LCAs, scenario analyses, and environmental hotspot iden­
tifications, LCA can be applied for eco-improvement.
All the environmental impacts of the BIPV panels are quantified from
In this study for the case of BIPV, the application of LCA becomes
cradle to grave i.e. from the material extraction, cell production, panel
crucial as this technology generates renewable electricity and causes
assembly and installation, electricity generation and end-of-life treat­
modest environmental impacts during its operation. By including all
ment of decommissioned panel. The transportation stage is also
impacts from both upstream processes such as mineral and metal
included. The selected functional unit is 1 kWh of electricity being
extraction for producing the mounting system, and downstream pro­
generated by the panels. The same functional unit is applied for life cycle
cesses such as waste treatment and recycle of decommission modules,
costs, with consideration of manufacturing costs only. There is no cut-off
the consideration of its life cycle environmental impacts will make a fair
or allocation procedure being applied in this study.
comparison of this technology and other technologies of the energy
sector as well as the building sector.
Life cycle thinking approach can be applied for all three aspects of 2.3. Scenarios of technology development and fabrication cost
sustainability. While the conventional LCA considers the environmental
impacts, life cycle costing and social life cycle assessment are applicable The final goal of the study is to propose eco-design measures for
for economic and social aspects, and life cycle sustainability assessment emerging BIPV modules; therefore, several scenarios has been assessed,
can be used as an overarching general framework encompassing all focusing on three aspects (1) the transmittance (and relevant PCE) of the
sustainability perspectives. All these methods share the common cells, (2) cells’ materials such as silicon and perovskite and (3) end-of-
framework of ‘life cycle thinking’, meaning that they consider the im­ life management strategies including disposal and recycling of mod­
pacts for its whole life cycle. ule. Different from the traditional solar PV modules, the BIPV modules
This study will apply the attributional approach for LCA for envi­ requires the aesthetic value when being integrated into the living area.
ronmental impacts, in which all inputs and outputs of a product system For common solar PV, no transmittance is needed, in this case the PCE
are attributed to the functional unit. This is done by linking the unit can be exploited at maximum. However, for BIPV modules, sometimes
processes of the system to that functional unit within a defined system opaque module is needed for roof installation. In some other cases, the
boundary [41]. Apart from environmental impacts, the economic aspect window installations require higher transmittance, being similar to
is studied by applying LCC. typical windows. In this case, the PCE reduces, being traded-off for the
high transmittance. Furthermore, the solar PV panel’s efficiency is

3
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

Fig. 1. Examples of roof and window installed BIPVs in Firenze, top right: rooftop BIPV, top left: window BIPV [48], and bottom: 2D drawing of the system.

limited by the Shockley-Queisser limit, which leads to the study of new modules such as perovskite based BIPV, as the study on end-of-life
materials and new structure for solar PV and BIPV in particular. The treatment of new modules is limited and there are concerns on
studies on new materials such as perovskite and comparison of new and toxicity of the cells containing toxic materials, e.g. lead. The detail of
conventional material (e.g. silicon) is essential to test the new materials scenarios is presented in Table 2.
and to identify any potential for the new materials enter the market from The control parameters of these scenarios include transmittance,
different point of views, covering technical opportunities, and envi­ lifetime of the modules, materials for the cells and the end-of-life
ronmental impacts/benefits. Similarly, the cost scenarios aim at exam­ management strategies. These control parameters are selected due to
ining various glasses and back sheets from the economic perspectives. their difference in technical requirement of common PV and BIPV
Regarding the end-of-life management strategies, the decommissioned modules (e.g their transmittance and aesthetic value), the need of new
BIPV module are required to be recycled and recovered under the Waste material and structure for solar PV sector to increase the modules’ ef­
from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive [49]. ficiency and reduce their environmental impacts. The last control
Therefore, the end-of-life treatment, whether its contribution is large (or parameter on the recycling strategy of the module is selected due to the
small) should be studied. This is even more important in the case of new policy requirement on recycling the decommissioned PV modules.

4
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

Table 2
Scenario details for eco-design of emerging BIPV modules.
Scenario Technology Location (annual solar Transmittance (PCE) Lifetime End-of-life treatment
radiation)

S1 SSC, Roof installation, 315 Bolzano (1600.19 kWh/ No transmittance (23 %) 25 yrs Disposal
Wp m2/yr)
S2 SSC, Façade installation, Firenze (1494.50 kWh/ High transmittance (9 %) 25 yrs Disposal
17.5 kWp m2/yr)
S3 SSC, Façade installation, Bolzano (1600.19 kWh/ High transmittance (10 %) 25 yrs Disposal
315 Wp m2/yr)
S4 SSC, Façade installation, Bolzano (1600.19 kWh/ Opaque, 30 % transmittance 25 yrs Disposal
315 Wp m2/yr) (15 %)
S5 PSC, Façade installation, Bolzano (1600.19 kWh/ Opaque, 30 % transmittance 15 yrs Disposal
2
315 Wp m /yr) (18 %)
S6 PSC, Roof installation, 315 Bolzano (1600.19 kWh/ No transmittance (27 %) 15 yrs Disposal
Wp m2/yr)
S7 S1 Recycle module and recover, glass, aluminium and copper for
S8 S2 fabricating the recycled cells
S9 S3
S10 S4
S11 S5
S12 S6
C1 S1, glass on glass module with sc-Si PERC cells
C2 S2, glass on glass with extra clear and lacobel glass and IBC Maxeon cells
C3 S3, glass on backsheet with float coloured and IBC Maxeon cells
C4 S4, glass on backsheet with extra clear glass and IBC Maxeon cells
C5 S5, glass on glass with perovskite solar cells
C6 S6, glass on glass with perovskite solar cells

2.4. Inventory analysis: data and assumptions

Table 3
LCI of panel assembly and PSC fabrication.
As recommended in the ISO standards, the data for foreground
processes should be primary, while the data for background process Major components/ Unit Value Source of data
materials
might be taken from relevant database. This study applies the same
principle for foreground process (the data for module assembly and For 1 m2 of panel assembly and installation Data from the laboratories of the
PV glass kg 2.00E+01 NEST project’s partners
installation) on-site data, provided by the NEST Spoke 1 project’s
Solar cells m2 8.77E-01
partners. Manufacturing of the PSC is considered as foreground process Encapsulant kg 1.65E+00
with on-site data, being provided by the NEST project partners, while Copper connector kg 2.20E-01
manufacturing of the SSC are background process with data being taken Wire and connectors kg 2.50E-01
from the most updated and reliable life cycle inventory (LCI) datasets of For 1 cm2 of PSC fabrication
Fluorine Tin Oxide g 8.70E-01
IEA PVPS Task 12 [50]. The data for recycling of PV modules are
glass
referred from reports of IEA [51,52]. The data for other background Acetone g 2.52E-01
processes (e.g. the manufacturing of other components) are taken from Isopropanol g 2.50E-01
Ecoinvent database [53]. All the data sources are the most reliable, Silver g 2.00E-02
updated and popular for LCA studies in general and LCA of solar PV in Titanium g 9.50E-03
diisopropoxide bis
particular. Table 3 provides the LCI data of assembling PV module, Acetylacetonate g 6.20E-03
fabricating PSC and other background processes. Ethanol g 1.13E-01
There are several assumptions regarding the transportation of the Dimethyl sulfoxide g 4.40E-02
solar cells and electricity consumption. Regarding transportation, no Formamidinium g 4.96E-03
bromine
transportation is needed for BIPV assembly and installation, as the BIPV
Lead bromide g 1.47E-02
is installed in the laboratory of the NEST project partner. However, for PTAA g 5.33E-03
fabricating the module, different assumptions are made. For the SSC, the Anhydrous toluene g 3.00E-02
EU average market shares along with the relevant need for trans­ Indium tin oxide g 8.00E-04
portation are applied, i.e. 83.9 % of PV cells are transported from Asia Nitrogen gas kg 9.80E-03
Electricity kWh 6.99E-01
Pacific and the remaining of 16.1 % comes from domestic supply [50]. consumption
For PSC, materials are transported from the local storage of the suppliers Transportation tkm 8.14E-04 Assumption
to the laboratories of the NEST project’s partners. Background processes
Moreover, it is assumed that the production and installation (if any) Manufacturing of SSC [50]
Recycling of BIPV module [51,52]
occur in Italy, i.e. the Italian grid mix will be applied for the use of
Manufacturing of other components and [53]
electricity during these two stages. In terms of costs, it is assumed that all processes (electricity, transportation,
the incurred costs are in EUR. In cases where the costs for materials are inverter, etc.)
quoted in other currency, the exchange rate of the European Central Electricity, medium voltage {IT}
Bank will be applied. The cost data is provided by the laboratories of the Transport, freight, lorry 3.5–7.5 metric ton,
EURO 5 {RER}
NEST project partners, which is sourced from the suppliers of the ma­ Inverter 2.5 kW {GLO}, Inverter 0.5 kW
terials. It is assumed that all consumed materials are measured in weight {GLO}
to match with the Ecoinvent database. In case the materials are bought
in piece, or volume, the conversion based on their density will be
applied, for matching life cycle environmental impact assessment and
LCC quantification.

5
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

2.5. Indicators and equations materials to the environmental impacts, (3) the role of end-of-life
treatment in reducing environmental impacts, (4) the economic feasi­
Currently, there is a wide range of life cycle environmental impact bility of the BIPV module and cost of electricity generated by the
assessment (LCIA) method and relevant indicators such as ReCiPe [54], modules, and (5) proposal of eco-design measures for BIPV. The first
indicators of IEA PVPS Task 12 for LCA guideline [44], and European four pieces of results correspond to the scenarios, while the last pieces of
PEF for midpoint environmental indicators [46]. The selected LCIA results are the practical measures for eco-design of BIPV which are ob­
method is PEF, which is suitable for assessing the environmental impacts tained from the analysis of the first four pieces of results. The eco-design
of solar energy technologies in European context [55,56]. of BIPV is presented in Fig. 2.
The PEF method covers 16 indicators: climate change (GWP), ozone
depletion (ODP), human toxicity, cancer (HT-c), human toxicity, non- 3.1. Transmittance, PCE and environmental impacts
cancer (HT-nc), particulate matter (PMF), ionizing radiation (IR),
photochemical ozone formation (PCOF), acidification (AP), eutrophi­ The life cycle impacts are calculated for a grid-connected rooftop
cation, terrestrial (EP-t), eutrophication, freshwater (EP-fw), eutrophi­ module installed in Bolzano over it 25 years of lifetime in Scenario 1
cation, marine (EP-m), ecotoxicity, freshwater (ET-fw), land use (LU), (S1). Only electricity generation is taken into account, without any
water use (WU), resource use, minerals and metals (EU-m) and resource consideration of thermal production of BIPV. The GWP of the module is
use, fossils (RU-f) [46]. at 2.41E-02 kg CO2 eq. Comparing to the PV systems installed in Italy,
LCC method is based on cost and benefit analysis, with one indicator with the average carbon footprint at 2.76E-02 kg CO2 eq per kWh for
of the LCOE, being quantified for 1 kWh of electricity generated from optimized S-facing panel and the mean value of BIPV in EU at 3.58E-02
BIPV modules. kg CO2 eq per kWh [57], the carbon footprint of BIPV in this study is
Equation (1) presents an example of quantifying life cycle environ­ slightly lower.
mental impacts: Meanwhile, the GWP of window installation module installed in
n
( ) Firenze in Scenario 2 (S2) nearly triples that of S1 module, at 6.73E-02
∑ ∑m ( ∑ )
Impj = Am i *CFi,j (1) kg CO2 eq. Similarly, other environmental impacts of S2 module are
1
1 significantly higher than those of S1 module, from 2.8 to 3.8 times.
The difference is lowest among ODP, GWP and RU-f. For example,
In which: the GWP of S2 is 2.8 times higher than that of S1, at 2.42E-02 kg CO2 eq
Impj is the life cycle impact j per kWh of electricity. Meanwhile the difference is highest among HT-
n is the life cycle stages nc, and RU-m. For example, the RU-m of S2 is 5.74E-06 kg Sb eq,
m is process. which is 3.5 times higher than that of S1, 1.66E-06 kg Sb eq. The dif­
Ami is the amount of air emissions of substance i. ference between the environmental impacts of these two modules
CFi,j is the characterization factor of substance i to the impact j mainly originates from the lower solar radiation in Firenze and lower
PEF recommends two life cycle stages of raw material acquisition, PCE of window-installed module, which has been traded-off for its high
pre-processing, module manufacturing and distribution. This study is transmittance, compared to rooftop module in Bolzano, with a small
conducted on lab-scale and pilot BIPV modules; therefore, distribution contribution of energy used for rooftop and facade installations, as well
stage is not available. Besides, the end-of-life stage with two options of as the installed capacity of system at 315 Wp and 17.5 kWp.
disposal and recycle the BIPV modules is considered in the study. Comparing with other BIPV windows or façade in the literature, the
Equation (2) represents an example of cost calculation: GWP of BIPV in the scenario S2 is considerably lower, being as half of
n
( ) the average GWP of dielectric based BICPVs, at 142 gCO2eq [36] and
∑ ∑m ( ∑ )
LCC = Amk *uCostk (2) nearly five times lower than that of adaptive solar façade without taking
1
1 into account of carbon offset due to energy savings for heating, cooling
and lighting, at 331 gCO2eq [27]. The GWPs of the studied S2 module
In which: and the literature are considerably difference due to the fact that these
LCC is life cycle cost, measured in Eur modules, and the scope of the quantified indicators are different. Table 4
n is the life cycle stages presents the life cycle impacts of the rooftop module installed in Bolzano
m is process. and the façade module installed in Firenze.
Amk is the amount of input consumed or output recycled or treated k The life cycle environmental impacts largely depend on the trans­
uCostk is the unit cost of input or output k mittance and PCE of the module. The PCE is highest in case of rooftop
Due to the limitation of data, this study quantifies the costs during installation (S1), which delivers the lowest environmental impacts.
manufacturing stage only. Besides no externality is included in the When the transmittance increases and the PCE decreases, the environ­
calculation. mental impacts gradually increase in scenarios S2, S3, S4 for façade
Equation (3) represents an example of hotspot identification: installation categories (as presented in Fig. 3). Comparing the highest
Impj,c × 100 and lowest environmental impacts of scenarios S2 and S1 respectively,
HS = (3) indicates the differences are around 2.8 to 3.8 times as mentioned above.
Impj,p
Meanwhile the difference between consecutive scenarios, e.g. between
In which: S2 and S3, between S3 and S4, and between S4 and S1 are around 1.5
HS is the contributions of different components to the total impact of times for most of the impact. Specifically, the environmental impacts of
the product, measure in percentage (%) S3 are 1.5 times larger than those of S4 for all impact categories because
Impj,c is the life cycle impact j of component c these two scenarios are similar in most aspects, except for the trans­
mittance and corresponding PCE. In case of changing both PCE and
Impj,p is the life cycle impact j of product p
types of installation, e.g. façade installation in S4 and roof installation in
S1, the difference among corresponding impacts ranges from 1.5 to 1.7
3. Life cycle impact assessment and interpretation: results
times, indicating that types of installation have a smaller contribution to
the environmental impacts compared to PCE. Finally, environmental
The results cover five important points of the eco-design of BIPV,
impacts of S2 modules are larger than those of S3 module from 1.2 to 1.6
including (1) the links between transmittance, PCE and environmental
times, depending on the impact categories, indicating that increasing
impacts, (2) the contribution of components and the selection of
the installed capacity (from 315 Wp and 17.5 kWp) brings some

6
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

Fig. 2. Eco-design of BIPV.

of the module.
Table 4
Life cycle impacts of BIPV modules.
3.2. Components, materials and environmental impacts
Impact Unit BIPV rooftop, Bolzano (S1) BIPV facade, Firenze (S2)

AP mol H+ eq 1.98E-04 6.52E-04 Analysis on the contribution of different components to the life cycle
GWP kg CO2 eq 2.41E-02 6.73E-02 impacts per kWh from cradle to grave indicates that the PV cell is the
ET-fw CTUe 3.45E-01 1.04E+00
largest contributor to most of the impacts categories (see Fig. 4). It ac­
PMF disease inc. 1.71E-09 5.00E-09
EP-m kg N eq 5.63E-05 1.62E-04 counts for 71 % of WU, 64 % of EP-m, 49 % of IR, 45 % of ET-fw. It is also
EP-fw kg P eq 1.62E-05 5.36E-05 the top contributor of some other impacts, with a smaller share, for
EP-t mol N eq 3.20E-04 9.52E-04 example 31 % of GWP, 32 % of EP-fw, 30 % of EP-t, 28 % of PCOF and
HT-c CTUh 3.28E-11 1.02E-10 34 % of RU-f. EVA is the largest contributor to ODP (55 %). Mounting
HT-nc CTUh 1.29E-09 4.90E-09
IR kBq U-235 eq 2.42E-03 7.62E-03
system is the largest contributor to PMF (26 %) and HT-c (31 %).
LU Pt 1.24E-01 3.62E-01 Electricity installation is the largest contributor to HT-nc (53 %), and
ODP kg CFC11 eq 1.20E-09 3.30E-09 RU-m (40 %). The end-of-life treatment (including waste treatment of
PCOF kg NMVOC eq 1.02E-04 2.97E-04 panel and cell production process and the recycling of the used panel)
RU-f MJ 2.92E-01 8.22E-01
accounts for an insignificant share of the life cycle impact.
RU-m kg Sb eq 1.66E-06 5.74E-06
WU m3 depriv. 2.25E-02 6.35E-02 In such case, the eco-design of BIPV module should focus on the PV
cells, for reducing several environmental impacts such as ET-fw, GWP,
Notes: Acidification potential: AP, Global warming potential: GWP, Ecotoxicity –
EP and RU-f. At the same time, other components such as EVA, mounting
freshwater: ET-fw, Particulate matter formation: PMF, Eutrophication potential
system, and process such as electric installation should not be neglected
– marine: EP-m, Eutrophication potential – freshwater: EP-fw, Eutrophication
potential-terrestrial: EP-t, Human toxicity – cancer: HT-c, Human toxicity – non
during the design of the module.
cancer: HT-nc, Ionizing radiation: IR, Land use: LU, Ozone depletion potential: To examine the role of materials for PV cells in eco-design of the BIPV
ODP, Photochemical ozone formation: PCOF, Resource use - fossil: RU-f, modules, two scenarios with modules made from PSC (S5 and S6) are
Resource use – mineral and metal: RU-m, Water use: WU. conducted. By using PSC in replacement of SSC, the PCE increases while
the lifetime of the cells decreases due to the instability of perovskite
offsetting affects for the lower solar radiation (of Bolzano and Firenze). material. In this case, the environmental impacts of perovskite based
The BIPV systems can be utilized for two applications, being installed BIPV module are much higher than those of silicon based BIPV module
on rooftop or façade. In case of rooftop BIPV, the environmental impacts (as presented in Fig. 5). The environmental impacts of perovskite based
are similar to those of PV, thanks to the high PCE of the system. In case of BIPV module are from 1.7 to 32 times higher than those of silicon-based
being integrated into the building as window or façade, the PCE is materials for window installation (S5 vs. S2), and from 4 to 60 times for
traded-off with the transmittance and aesthetical value. As a result, the rooftop installation (S6 vs S1). The lowest difference is among HT-nc, at
environmental impacts tend to increase and are higher than the con­ 1.7 times for window installation and ET-fw, at 4 times for rooftop
ventional PV cells. For the eco-design of BIPV module, it is importance to installation. The highest difference lies in WU, for both installations. The
select the suitable products for different applications, and correspond­ GWP of perovskite-based BIPV module is 10 times and 19 times higher
ingly the materials for that product. Besides, the design of BIPV module, than that of silicon-based module, for window and rooftop installation,
especially for the window installation, should focus on materials that respectively.
can balance the transmittance, aesthetic values as well as the efficiency The GWP of silicon based BIPV (S1) in this study is 24.1 gCO2eq per
kWh, which is very close to the average carbon footprint of BIPV in Italy,

7
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

Fig. 3. Life cycle impacts of BIPV module.

at 27.6 gCO2eq per kWh for optimized S-facing panel, lower than the efficiency of solar material, it is encouraged to extend the lifetime of
mean value of BIPV in EU at 35.8 gCO2eq per kWh [57]. The similarity emerging PV cells such as PSC. Only by this way, the substitution of new
indicates the representativeness of S1 BIPV in this study and can be materials can compete with the traditional ones in both energy and
explained by the selected datasets (IEA datasets) and technology (SSC environmental terms.
without transmittance and with maximum PCE) among two studies.
However, in cases of perovskite material, the GWP increase to 460 3.3. End-of-life treatment and environmental impacts
gCO2eq per kWh, which is now nearly 13 times higher than the EU
average of silicon based BIPV. According to EU policy, it is compulsory to recycle the PV panel [49,
It should be noted that SSC is a mature technology, with efficient and 58]. At the same time, there is a concern on toxicity coming from lead
industrialized manufacturing process, while PSC is currently under its used in PSC. Therefore, though the contribution of end-of-life treatment
early development, and being studied at lab scale. The production scale of PV module is inconsiderable, two end-of-life management strategies
of the cells may contribute a small part to the difference in their envi­ (in scenarios S6, S7, S8, S9, S10, S11 and S12) are proposed to compare
ronmental impacts of the two modules. However, it is undeniable that at their contributions on the life cycle impacts. The main environmental
the current stage of development, the higher PCE of perovskite cells can impacts of S7, S8 and S12, being compared to S1, S2 and S6 are pre­
not compensate for its short lifetime, considering the environmental sented in Fig. 6.
impacts of BIPV module per kWh of electricity being generated. Recycling helps to reduce most of impact categories such as GWP,
Therefore, for the eco-design of BIPV module, apart from the ET-fw, HT-c, HT-nc, RU-f, RU-m and etc. The reduction ranges from 1 %

8
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

Fig. 4. Share of impacts by components of BIPV rooftop.

to 23 %, with the highest reductions in PMF at 23 % in case of recycling product. While the rooftop BIPV does not need the high trans­
the rooftop installed BIPV module, and 22 % in case of recycling façade mittance, the window application requires higher transmittance and
installed BIPV module. Other impacts which have relatively large re­ aesthetic values. In such case, the PCE of window application is lower
ductions include HT-c (from 10 % to 11 %), AP, EP-t and PCOF (from 8 than that of rooftop installation. At the same time, the aesthetic
% to 9 %). Reductions in RU-m and EP-fw are the lowest, at 1 %. requirement of BIPV window cause a higher cost for better quality
However, the eco-design measure of recycling has some environmental glass. As results, the environmental impacts per kWh of electricity
trade-offs. While it reduces most of impact categories, it causes an in­ generation as well as the LCOE of window installation are higher
crease in IR and WU. Specifically, recycling causes an increase by 8 % in than those of rooftop installation. The eco-design of emerging BIPV
IR of rooftop module, and by 13 % in WU of rooftop module and 14 % in modules, therefore, should take into consideration of specific appli­
WU of façade module. cations of the product, and tailor-made materials for PV cells as well
Recycling has a negligible impact on perovskite modules, with the as other components accordingly.
reduction of impacts being less than 5 %. Besides, there is no identified
trade-off from the recycling of perovskite module, meaning that this eco- In case the BIPV modules are installed on the rooftop of the building,
design measure causes either unnoticeable change or reduce all the it is recommended to use the conventional silicon-based solar PV mod­
environmental impacts in this type of BIPV module. ule. These modules deliver high PCE, consequently generate the
maximum amount of electricity. For fully integrated of BIPV modules on
3.4. Fabrication cost of emerging BIPV module the rooftop, frameless PV laminates may be installed and integrated with
special mounting system to ensure the waterproof function of the roof
Costs for electricity generated from BIPV module are at 0.01 EUR per [61]. For the similar purpose of “fully integrated”, PV tiles may be uti­
kWh for rooftop installation and 0.37 EUR per kWh for window instal­ lized in replacement of traditional tiles, or thin-film layers can be
lation (as presented in Table 5). The cost of reference case C1 for rooftop tailor-made to cover a rigid substrate as requirement of the customers
installation lies in the range of literature for LCOE of small solar PV [61].
systems in Germany, from 0.0065 to 0.014 EUR per kWh [59]. Besides, Sometimes, the BIPV modules require the high transmittance, for
the costs of window-installed cases (C2, C3 and C4) are similar to those examples agrivoltaics on the roofs and walls of glass houses, and PV
of BIPV façade system in Norway from 0.11 to 0.35 EUR per kWh [60]. modules on the roofs, façade for aesthetic purposes, and BIPV windows.
The components including PV cells, glass and inverter contribute a In such cases, colour glass, perovskite material for absorber layer, and
large part of the total cost per kWh, from 91 % to 99 %. The use of energy combinations of materials for electron transport layer are
for fabricating, installing and transporting the module accounts for recommended.
small parts of the total cost. The costs of electricity generated from
perovskite-based BIPV module (C5 and C6) are much higher than that of • On the component scale, the eco-design should focus on environ­
silicon-based module (C1), due to the significant share of cost for PSC mental and cost hotspots, such as PV cell, EVA, mounting system,
fabricated at lab scale. Besides, the costs of electricity generated from glass. PV cell is the largest contributor for most of environmental
window-installed module (C2, C3 and C4) are relatively higher than that impacts, while EVA and mounting system are the main contributors
of rooftop module (C1) due to the high price of colour glass and extra for ODP, PMF and HT-c. In term of cost, colour glass is the main cause
clear glass for transmittance and aesthetic value. of high cost of BIPV window. Besides, the PSC is expensive due to its
lab-scaled production.
• On the material scale, it is encouraged to study innovative materials
3.5. Eco-design guidelines
so that it can balance the transmittance, aesthetic values as well as
the efficiency of the BIPV module. At current development stage, the
The eco-design guidelines for emerging BIPV modules cover the
replacement of perovskite for silicon does not bring energy and
following main points.
environmental benefits. The change into new materials such as
perovskite can only be feasible if the efficiency and lifetime of PSC
• On the product scale, it is necessary to select the suitable products for
are improved and extended.
different applications, and correspondingly the materials for that

9
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

Fig. 5. Materials and environmental impacts.

In order to improve the efficiency and lifetime of the perovskite cells, itself, as well as increasing the amount and quality of recovered
a mixture of solutions is needed, being relevant to the material of each materials that can be used in the recycled modules.
layer of the cells, the combination of materials, the structure of the cells
and even the fabrication process. A recent literature proposed the two Table 6 presents a summary of eco-design guidelines with recom­
terminal perovskite and silicon tandem cells being fabricated by me­ mended actions and benefits of implementing these eco-design
chanically stack-up, with tin oxide on top of titanium dioxide doped measures.
with carbon as electron transport layer, which achieve the PCE of 31 % The successful implementation of these eco-design measures would
[62]. In other cases of building applications, the transmittance is require the cooperation of various stakeholders. While the first three
increased by using ionic liquid in inorganic cesium lead bromide eco-design measures on product, component and material scales are
perovskite, obtaining the PCE of 6.11 % with visible transmittance value more relevant to BIPV developers, including business managers, engi­
of 58 % [63], or utilizing the indium tin oxide/silver/indium tin oxide neers, environmental managers and designers, the last measure involves
multilayer for the visible transmittance value of 87 %, while enhancing both manufacturing industry and other stakeholders along the BIPV
the solar energy efficiency under high temperature conditions [64]. supply chain, such as the waste treatment and recycling companies. The
role of policy makers is also undeniable in encouraging the research and
• Considering that recycle of decommissioned BIPV module is development of new materials for BIPV, with consideration of technical
compulsory, it is suggested that the recycling process need to be improvement and environmental sustainability, going beyond the
further study. This will increase the efficiency of recycling process manufacturing processes to cover the whole life cycle of the technology.

10
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

Fig. 6. EoL treatment and environmental impacts.

As mentioned before, the implementation of eco-design measures

Table 5
involves various stakeholders, which is also a challenge for the devel­
Levelized cost of electricity.
opment of BIPV. While the engineers have clear mind of developing
Cost C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 technically, they have limited experience on environmental aspects and
components
sustainability. The environmental managers may have some knowledge
Material 5.63E- 3.71E- 9.13E- 5.76E- 2.84E+00 1.91E+00 on LCA and life cycle perspective, but they rarely have in-depth tech­
03 01 02 02
nical knowledge. In order to overcome this barrier, a simplified LCA tool
Energy 2.07E- 5.84E- 4.82E- 3.21E- 1.92E-01 1.29E-01
04 04 04 04 is needed for the technology developers to quickly review the design and
Transport 3.34E- 9.40E- 7.76E- 5.17E- 9.66E-04 6.50E-04 improve it technically and environmentally by changing critical pa­
04 04 04 04 rameters such as efficiency, materials, and components.
Lab ​ ​ ​ ​ 1.47E+02 9.91E+01 For the BIPV applications in the real world, the Implementation
equipment
Working Group on Photovoltaics (IWG PV)’s Strategic Energy Tech­
Total cost 0.01 0.37 0.09 0.06 3.03 2.04
without lab nology (SET) plan [65] has pointed out several challenges such as: (1)
equipment the availability of up-to-date georeferenced data of the building typol­
Total cost 0.01 0.37 0.09 0.06 150.28 101.12 ogy, building footprint and high resolution digital terrain model, (2) the
missing of supporting tools and mechanisms for system integration such

11
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

Table 6 as ‘smart demand’ response programs, smart contract based on the use of
Summary of the eco-design guidelines. distributed metering of the energy flow and on the use of blockchain,
Scale of Guideline Recommended Benefit sector coupling, improved ancillary service, distributed metering and
application action sensors to improve the grid observability, electrical storage, electric
Product Consider the • Use silicon based • Maximize the vehicle and e-charging stations and (3) the need of a facility for the
specific BIPV module for benefits of technological, aesthetical and energy integration of BIPV modules.
application of the application that electricity In order to develop BIPV modules sustainably, the IWG PV’s SET plan
BIPV modules to does not require generation while recommended to define the key performance indicators in a life cycle
balance the high ensuring the
benefits of transmittance. requirements of
perspective and in accordance with PEF, with the combined economic
electricity • Use frameless PV weather and environmental performance [65]. Therefore, the LCA and LCC
generation, laminates and protection and studies on BIPV module, and a list of suggested eco-design measures (as
weather special mounting aesthetics of this study) are needed. The application of these eco-design measures will
protection and system for fully building envelop.
reduce the environmental impacts of BIPV and optimize the cost of
aesthetic value. integrated BIPV • Fulfil the need of
roof installation. the customers. electricity and economic value of BIPV, consequently support the sus­
• Apply thin-film tainability of BIPV.
layer on rigid sub­ As the volume of newly installed PV panels increases, there is also a
strate for rooftop concern on the increased volume of decommissioned PV panels and
installation.
• Use colour glass,
related waste, which is applicable for both solar PV and BIPV modules.
perovskite Hence, the attention should be address to the resource depletion of
materials and minerals, metals and critical raw materials, the PV end-of-life manage­
combinations of ment strategies such as recovery and recycling and circular supply chain
materials for
with the use of secondary raw materials and material with low envi­
applications
which require ronmental impacts or less critical.
high As a source of renewable energy, the exploitation of solar PV will
transmittance, contribute to the decarbonization of the economy, aiming at climate
such as glass targets. The eco-design of BIPV will further reduce its life cycle GHG
houses’ roofs and
emissions, with double benefits in both energy and building sectors.
walls, façade and
windows. Apart from GHG emissions, other critical impacts such as toxicity, raw
Component Focus on • Increase the • Reduce the material consumption are minimized, which supports the transition to­
environmental energy efficiency environmental wards environmental sustainability. At the same time, the eco-design of
and economic of cell impacts of the
innovative BIPV, e.g. perovskite based BIPV in this study, aims at the
hotspots such as manufacturing for components.
PV cell, EVA, silicon-based PV • Reduce the cost of prevention of any potential environmental impacts at the early stage of
mounting system cells. sourcing the new cells and development, so that the environmental impacts of the new technology
and glass. electricity for cell components. can be reduced, while delivering the best technical performance, mini­
manufacturing mizing the production cost, bringing it close to the market. Conse­
from clean and
quently, it touches the economic sustainability and is relevant to at least
renewable energy
sources. five sustainable development goals (SDGs) on SDG7 affordable and
• Improve the clean energy, SDG9 industry, innovation and infrastructure, SDG11
material efficiency sustainable city and communities, SDG12 sustainable production and
and further study
consumption and SDG13 climate action.
on new materials
for EVA and
mounting system. 3.6. Sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis
• Further study to
reducing the cost Sensitivity analysis is conducted to assess the robustness of the re­
of colour glass and
improving the
sults to variations in key input parameters and assumptions. This can be
efficiency/ done by conducting several scenarios, changing some critical parame­
productivity of ters. In the existing attributional LCA in the energy sector, sensitivity
cell analysis is frequently conducted by changing the electricity mix, or
manufacturing for
sources of energy/electricity consumed during the life cycle of the
PSCs.
Material Further study • Improving the • Maximize the PCE product system. Other study changed the weighting factors of indicators
innovative efficiency and and transmittance to see how they affect the results [66]. In consequential LCA which is
materials and lifetime of simultaneously. relevant to the whole economy and covers several countries, the sensi­
combinations of perovskite tivity analysis may be done by changing the number of economic sec­
materials for materials by
absorber layer, combining it with
tors, countries or regions, as being studied in Ref. [67]. This study
electron transport other materials. includes several sensitivity analyses, by quantifying the life cycle envi­
layer and glass • Further study to ronmental impacts and costs of BIPV, with some alterations in critical
combine materials parameters such as transmittance, PCE, components, materials and
for different layers
end-of-life management strategies.
of the cells.
Life cycle Recycle the BIPV • Increase the • Minimize the use As it is identified that PV cell is the largest contributor to most of the
modules when efficiency of the of virgin materials. impact categories, a sensitivity analysis is conducted on electricity
they reach their recycling process. • Minimize the consumption for PSC manufacturing. Instead of being manufacturing in
end of life • Encourage the use environmental an Italian laboratory, the PSC is manufactured with EU grid mix and
of recovered and impacts of
recycled materials modules for their
Chinese grid. In case of using the EU grid mix, most of the impact cat­
and modules. whole life cycle. egories experience a small change, except for the case of EP-fw, IR, ODP.
Specifically, the EP-fw triples and IR increases four times, while the ODP
decreases by a third when the EU grid mix is used for fabricating the

12
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

cells. In case of using the Chinese grid for fabricating the cells, most of 2.74E-01 MJ and 1.05E+01 MJ, and RU-m is from 1.63E-06 kg Sb eq to
the impacts increase significantly from two to ten times. Only ODP 1.14E-04 kg Sb eq per kWh. The large range of impacts is caused by the
decrease two thirds, and IR and WU reduce slightly. The changes in the variety in the transmittance, materials of the solar cells and end-of-life
environmental impacts of PSC per cm2 when different electricity sources management strategies. Besides, the LCOE generated from BIPV mod­
are used for fabricating the cells, are illustrated in Fig. 7. ules ranges from 0.01 EUR to 3 EUR per kWh, depending on the mate­
The uncertainty analysis is conducted for the life cycle environ­ rials of solar glass and PV cells.
mental impacts per cm2 of PSC, with Monte Carlo analysis integrated in Considering that BIPV is solar PV which are mounted physically on
the SimaPro software [68], aiming at evaluating the parameter uncer­ the built envelop, the life cycle impacts and costs of BIPV modules are
tainty of the Ecoinvent background datasets and their impacts on the similar to the standard PV, especially for rooftop application. For win­
overall distribution of the obtained results. The results of uncertainty dow and façade installations, the aesthetics and transmittance re­
analysis are presented in Table 7. For most of the impact categories, the quirements will affect the PCE of the module, consequently, cause an
mean and median values are close to each other, indicating that the increase in environmental impacts, and also LCOE. Therefore, the eco-
results are symmetric. Except for the cases of HT-nc and WU, with a large design of BIPV modules need to balance the transmittance and PCE for
range between the mean and median values, which suggest the heavily specific applications in order to achieve the most desired customers’
skew of results, toward the negative value in case of HT-nc and toward demand. Besides, the eco-design of BIPV modules should focus some
the high value in case of WU. The standard deviation (SD) is relatively critical components such as PV cells, EVA, mounting system and colour
small compared to the means in some cases such as AP, GWP, HT-nc, glass, due to its large contribution to several environmental impacts and
RU-m, indicating the small variability in the obtained results. The co­ cost.
efficients of variance (CV) are high across all impact categories, indi­ The comparison between silicon and perovskite based BIPV modules
cating a relatively significant variation compared to the mean. For some indicates that at the current stage of research and development, perov­
impact categories such as ET-fw, IR, HT-c, HT-nc and WU, the CVs are skite material cannot compete with silicon for BIPV applications in both
extremely high, implying that some extreme values dominate the ob­ environmental and economic aspects. In order to compete with con­
tained results. Comparison of the percentiles at 2.5 % and 97.5 % in­ ventional PV cells, innovative PV cells such as PSC need to improve its
dicates that half of the impact categories, including ET-fw, EP-fw, HT-c, efficiency and increase its lifetime.
HT-nc, IR, LU, ODP, PCOF and WU experience a wide range of values, The paper develops a comparison of two materials for BIPV. While
especially for the case of ET-fw, HT-c and HT-nc and WU with negative the SSC is a mature technology, the PSC is an emerging technology and
value for 2.5 % percentile and positive value for 97.5 % percentile, now under laboratory study. At this early stage, there are potential for
suggesting the presence of many extreme value which lie far from the identifying the best technological design and optimize the technology
mean. The standard errors of the mean (SEM) are relatively small in environmentally and economically. However, there are difficulties in
most of the cases, indicating that the mean is a precise estimate of the term of data collection. The data may be unavailable, incomplete, or in
population, though the high variabilities in mean vs median, and large most of the cases, uncertain. The limitation of data for an emerging
spread between percentile 2.5 % and 97.5 % in some indicators such as technology such as PSC, and the difference in the maturity of two
ET, HT and WU make the mean less representative. technologies somehow cause an unfair comparison between the two
materials. We recommended that the results of the study should be
4. Conclusion treated as oriented information to state which module is preferred to the
other, not for quantitative comparisons of BIPV modules in absolute
The paper reports the life cycle environmental impacts and LCOE of terms. The lack of data also points out the importance of scenario
BIPV modules based on silicon and perovskite materials and proposed analysis to understand how different factors such as PCE, transmittance,
several eco-design guidelines and measures for technology’s develop­ lifetime, end-of-life management strategies and etc can affect the life
ment. Regarding the environmental impacts, the GWP of BIPV modules cycle environmental impacts and cost of the BIPV module.
ranges from 2.31E-02 kgCO2e to 6.83E-01 kgCO2e, RU-f varies between The paper applied the attributional LCA, which is a static model for

Fig. 7. Sensitivity analysis with different grid mixes for fabricating PSC. Notes: Acidification potential: AP, Global warming potential: GWP, Ecotoxicity – freshwater:
ET-fw, Particulate matter formation: PMF, Eutrophication potential – marine: EP-m, Eutrophication potential – freshwater: EP-fw, Eutrophication potential-
terrestrial: EP-t, Human toxicity – cancer: HT-c, Human toxicity – non cancer: HT-nc, Ionizing radiation: IR, Land use: LU, Ozone depletion potential: ODP,
Photochemical ozone formation: PCOF, Resource use - fossil: RU-f, Resource use – mineral and metal: RU-m, Water use: WU.

13
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

Table 7
Uncertainty analysis of life cycle environmental impacts per cm2 of PSC.
Impact Unit Mean Median SD CV 2.50 % 97.50 % SEM

AP mol H+ eq 1.17E-03 1.17E-03 6.44E-05 5.49E+00 1.06E-03 1.31E-03 2.04E-06

GWP kg CO2 eq 3.00E-01 2.99E-01 2.06E-02 6.85E+00 2.63E-01 3.44E-01 6.51E-04
ET-fw CTUe 7.37E-01 6.67E-01 2.56E+00 3.47E+02 − 4.50E+00 5.85E+00 8.09E-02
EP-fw kg P eq 6.85E-05 6.02E-05 3.50E-05 5.11E+01 3.22E-05 1.48E-04 1.11E-06
EP-m kg N eq 1.93E-04 1.91E-04 2.04E-05 1.05E+01 1.59E-04 2.41E-04 6.44E-07
EP-t mol N eq 2.20E-03 2.18E-03 2.28E-04 1.04E+01 1.82E-03 2.74E-03 7.22E-06
HT-c CTUh 9.80E-11 8.98E-11 9.50E-10 9.70E+02 − 1.82E-09 1.96E-09 3.00E-11
HT-nc CTUh 2.34E-09 − 7.31E-09 1.94E-07 8.31E+03 − 3.89E-07 3.89E-07 6.14E-09
IR kBq U-235 eq 3.80E-02 2.55E-02 4.12E-02 1.08E+02 1.13E-02 1.38E-01 1.30E-03
LU Pt 8.79E-01 8.69E-01 1.21E-01 1.37E+01 6.57E-01 1.14E+00 3.81E-03
ODP kg CFC11 eq 6.98E-09 6.66E-09 1.64E-09 2.35E+01 4.74E-09 1.08E-08 5.19E-11
PMF disease inc. 5.72E-09 5.62E-09 6.49E-10 1.14E+01 4.78E-09 7.35E-09 2.05E-11
PCOF kg NMVOC eq 9.18E-04 8.97E-04 1.46E-04 1.59E+01 6.87E-04 1.27E-03 4.61E-06
RU-f MJ 4.63E+00 4.54E+00 7.56E-01 1.63E+01 3.37E+00 6.40E+00 2.39E-02
RU-m kg Sb eq 5.14E-05 5.13E-05 2.01E-06 3.91E+00 4.77E-05 5.58E-05 6.36E-08
WU m3 depriv. 1.07E+00 5.02E+00 3.82E+01 3.56E+03 − 8.06E+01 6.75E+01 1.21E+00

Notes: Standard deviation: SD, Coefficient of variance: CV, Standard error of the mean: SEM, Acidification potential: AP, Global warming potential: GWP, Ecotoxicity –
freshwater: ET-fw, Particulate matter formation: PMF, Eutrophication potential – marine: EP-m, Eutrophication potential – freshwater: EP-fw, Eutrophication
potential-terrestrial: EP-t, Human toxicity – cancer: HT-c, Human toxicity – non cancer: HT-nc, Ionizing radiation: IR, Land use: LU, Ozone depletion potential: ODP,
Photochemical ozone formation: PCOF, Resource use - fossil: RU-f, Resource use – mineral and metal: RU-m, Water use: WU.

quantifying the potential environmental impacts of product and service. (continued )

The model is suitable for studying the stand-alone solar PV and BIPV AP Acidification
module. It is also perfect for this case study as the development of BICPV Building integrated concentrated photovoltaics
emerging PSC and innovative BIPV modules are at the initial stage. In BIPV Building integrated photovoltaics
BIPV/T Building integrated photovoltaics/thermal
case the module is integrated into the building, the model should be c-Si Crystalline silicon
more robust, to include the instant change of energy production and CdTe Cadmium telluride
consumption by hours, days, or seasons. The suggested model for this CIGS Copper indium gallium selenide
case is dynamic LCA. Besides, considering the diffusion of BIPV in the cm2 Square centimeter
CSP Concentrating solar power
future, the application of consequential LCA is recommended to take
CST Concentrating solar thermal
into account the rebound and spill-over effect of BIPV application at CV Coefficient of variance
large scale. EP-fw Eutrophication, freshwater
It is recommended that the recycling of the emerging PV cells such as EP-m Eutrophication, marine
PSC should be further studied. The current recycling strategies which EP-t Eutrophication, terrestrial
EPS Environmental Priority Strategies
perform well in recovering the metals, plastic and glass, could be ET-fw Ecotoxicity, freshwater
extended to recover perovskite materials to minimize the environmental EVA Ethylene-vinyl acetate
impacts and cost of electricity generated by the perovskite based BIPV g Gram
modules. All of these measures will support the development of BIPV GHG Greenhouse gas
GWP Global warming potential
modules which is not only response to the decarbonization of energy and
HT-c Human toxicity, cancer
building sectors, but also the potential answer for coping with material HT-nc Human toxicity, non-cancer
shortage and supporting the circular economy. IEA International Energy Agency
BIPV has a huge potential for further development and application; ILCD International Reference Life Cycle Data System
however, in the case of Italian BIPV sector, the current mechanism does IR Ionizing radiation
IWG PV Implementation Working Group on Photovoltaics
not take into account the speciality of BIPV, the target for BIPV is kg Kilogram
missing, and the exiting measures such as self-consumption, tax kWh Kilowatt hour
deduction, net billing, energy income are the same for BIPV and solar PV LCA Life cycle assessment
[65]. Therefore, a comprehensive development of mechanism and LCC Life cycle costing
LCI Life cycle inventory
frameworks for supporting BIPV should be further studied to support the
LCIA Life cycle impact assessment
large deployment of BIPV. LCOE Levelized cost of electricity
Besides, module and installation costs are another barrier. While the LU Land use
cost for standardized BIPV product is similar to that of solar PV, the m2 Square meter
customized BIPV products with colour glass, transparent glass, BIPV mc-Si Multi-crystalline silicon
NEST Network for Sustainable Energy Transition
tiles, and tiles with water-proof mounting system are more expensive.
ODP Ozone depletion
The high cost mostly originates from new technologies (in the case of PCE Power conversion efficiency
colour glass and transparent glass) and cost for certification and permit PCM Phase change material
[65] (for installing of BIPV on traditional tiles, or BIPV tiles on historical PCOF Photochemical ozone formation
PEF Product environmental footprint
buildings or heritages). It is recommended that on one hand, the in­
PMF Particulate matter
centives are needed for particular BIPV product that meet the request of PSC Perovskite solar cell
cultural authorities, and on the other hand further studies to optimize PTAA Poly(triarylamine)
the cost of BIPV module should be encouraged. PV Photovoltaics
PV/T Photovoltaics/thermal
RU-f Resource use, fossils
Nomenclature
RU-m Resource use, minerals and metals
sc-Si Single-crystalline silicon
a-Si Amorphous silicon
(continued on next page)
(continued on next column)

14
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

(continued ) [7] Bosu I, Mahmoud H, Ookawara S, Hassan H. Applied single and hybrid solar energy
techniques for building energy consumption and thermal comfort: a comprehensive
SD Standard deviation
review. Sol Energy 2023;259:188–228. [Link]
SDG Sustainable development goal solener.2023.05.006.
SEM Standard error of the mean [8] Kanters J, Wall M. Experiences from the urban planning process of a solar
SET Strategic Energy Technology neighbourhood in Malmö, Sweden. Urban Plan Transp Res 2018;6:54–80. https://
SSC Silicon solar cell [Link]/10.1080/21650020.2018.1478323.
tkm Tonne kilometer [9] Zhang J, Gao X, Deng Y, Li B, Yuan C. Life cycle assessment of titania perovskite
WEEE Waste from electrical and electronic equipment solar cell technology for sustainable design and manufacturing. ChemSusChem
Wp Watt peak 2015;8:3882–91. [Link]
WU Water use [10] IEA. The role of critical minerals in clean energy transitions. 2022.
[11] Montana F, Cellura M, Di Silvestre ML, Longo S, Luu LQ, Riva Sanseverino E,
Sciumè G. Assessing critical raw materials and their supply risk in energy
technologies—A literature review. Energies 2024;18:86. [Link]
en18010086.
[12] Zhang X, Shen J, Lu Y, He W, Xu P, Zhao X, Qiu Z, Zhu Z, Zhou J, Dong X. Active
CRediT authorship contribution statement solar thermal facades (ASTFs): from concept, application to research questions.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;50:32–63. [Link]
Le Quyen Luu: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, rser.2015.04.108.
[13] Binda T, Bottero M, Bisello A. Evaluating positive energy districts: a literature
Visualization, Methodology, Investigation, Conceptualization. Maur­ review. In: Calabrò F, Della Spina L, Piñeira Mantiñán MJ, editors. New
izio Cellura: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Su­ metropolitan perspectives, lecture notes in networks and systems. Cham: Springer
pervision, Investigation, Conceptualization. Francesco Guarino: International Publishing; 2022. p. 1762–70. [Link]
06825-6_170.
Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation, [14] Volpe R, Bisello A, Tuerk A, Guarino F, Giancola E, Sanchez MN, Tumminia G,
Formal analysis. Sonia Longo: Writing – review & editing, Writing – Marrasso E, Pallotta G, Cutore E, Cellura M, Fichera A, Longo S, Roselli C, Sasso M,
original draft, Methodology, Formal analysis. Zhang X, Marotta I, Brunetti A, Rincione R, Reda F. Linking environmental impact
assessment and positive energy districts: a literature review. Clean Environ Syst
2025;16:100264. [Link]
Declaration of competing interest [15] Abdelrazik AS, Shboul B, Elwardany M, Zohny RN, Osama A. The recent
advancements in the building integrated photovoltaic/thermal (BIPV/T) systems:
an updated review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2022;170:112988. [Link]
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
10.1016/[Link].2022.112988.
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: [16] Brahim T, Jemni A. Economical assessment and applications of photovoltaic/
Le Quyen Luu, Maurizio Cellura and Francesco Guarino reports financial thermal hybrid solar technology: a review. Sol Energy 2017;153:540–61. https://
[Link]/10.1016/[Link].2017.05.081.
support was provided by European Union. If there are other authors,
[17] Jing Y, Zhu L, Yin B, Li F. Evaluating the PV system expansion potential of existing
they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or integrated energy parks: a case study in North China. Appl Energy 2023;330:
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work 120310. [Link]
reported in this paper. [18] Krarti M. Evaluation of energy performance for rotating residential buildings
integrated with rooftop PV systems. Appl Energy 2025;383:125407. [Link]
org/10.1016/[Link].2025.125407.
Acknowledgments [19] Lim JW, Kim H. Predicting the energy, economic, and environmental performance
of next-generation photovoltaic technologies in residential buildings. Appl Energy
2025;390:125895. [Link]
This work has been developed in the framework of the project [20] Yang X, Wang Y, Wang R, Zhang H, Chen H, Huang J, Gao D. Integrated PV/T
’’Network 4 Energy Sustainable Transition – NEST″, code PE0000021, coupled PEM system for low-carbon office buildings: dynamic simulation, multi-
CUP B73C22001280006, Spoke 1, funded under the National Recovery energy synergy, and economic analysis. Energy 2025;330:136945. [Link]
10.1016/[Link].2025.136945.
and Resilience Plan (NRRP), Mission 4, by the European Union – Next­ [21] Lai Y-Y, Yang S, Fan L-W. Analysis and optimization of the performance of a solar
GenerationEU. The views and opinions expressed are those of the au­ PV/T system integrated with seasonal latent heat storage for decarbonized heating
thors only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or and hot water supply. Energy 2025;331:137069. [Link]
energy.2025.137069.
the European Commission. Neither the European Union nor the Euro­
[22] Bird M, Andraos R, Acha S, Shah N. Lifetime financial analysis of a model
pean Commission can be held responsible for them. predictive control retrofit for integrated PV-battery systems in commercial
The authors acknowledge the data provision from Laura Maturi, buildings. Energy Build 2025;332:115459. [Link]
enbuild.2025.115459.
Gabriella Gonnella and other colleagues at Eurac Research and Jessica
[23] Tang H, Li B, Zhang Y, Pan J, Wang S. A coordinated predictive scheduling and
Barichello and other colleagues at CNR Istituto di Struttura della Materia real-time adaptive control for integrated building energy systems with hybrid
on life cycle inventory of BIPV modules based on silicon and perovskite storage and rooftop PV. Renew Energy 2025;239:122047. [Link]
materials. 10.1016/[Link].2024.122047.
[24] Kamthania D, Tiwari GN. Energy metrics analysis of semi-transparent hybrid PVT
double pass facade considering various silicon and non-silicon based PV module
Data availability hyphen is accepted. Sol Energy 2014;100:124–40. [Link]
solener.2013.11.015.
[25] Ritzen MJ, Houben JJM, Rovers R, Vroon ZAEP, Geurts CPW. Carrying capacity
Data will be made available on request. based environmental impact assessment of building integrated photovoltaics.
Sustain Energy Technol Assessments 2019;31:212–20. [Link]
References seta.2018.12.006.
[26] Rossi F, Jelagat Kipyator M, Aernouts T, Pettersson H, Basosi R, Parisi ML,
Sinicropi A. Unveiling the potential of perovskite solar systems in building
[1] EEA. In: Total GHG emissions and removals in the EU; 2024. [Link]
integrated installations: a consequential and prospective life cycle assessment and
10.2909/6331f651-8863-4656-a911-669f2a332a1e.
economic analysis. Energy Build 2024;312:114214. [Link]
[2] EEA. Greenhouse gas emissions from energy use in buildings in Europe. 2024.
enbuild.2024.114214.
[3] IEA. Net zero by 2050 A roadmap for the global energy sector. International Energy
[27] Jayathissa P, Jansen M, Heeren N, Nagy Z, Schlueter A. Life cycle assessment of
Agency; 2021.
dynamic building integrated photovoltaics. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 2016;156:
[4] Kazaz O, Karimi N, Paul MC. Optically functional bio-based phase change material
75–82. [Link]
nanocapsules for highly efficient conversion of sunlight to heat and thermal
[28] Crawford RH, Treloar GJ, Fuller RJ, Bazilian M. Life-cycle energy analysis of
storage. Energy 2024;305:132290. [Link]
building integrated photovoltaic systems (BiPVs) with heat recovery unit. Renew
energy.2024.132290.
Sustain Energy Rev 2006;10:559–75. [Link]
[5] Naghipour P, Naghipour A. Energy performance analysis of residential buildings in
[29] Chow T-T, Ji J. Environmental life-cycle analysis of hybrid solar photovoltaic/
Bandar Anzali: influence of orientation and aspect ratio. Sustain 2025;5:100140.
thermal systems for use in Hong Kong. Int J Photoenergy 2012;2012:1–9. https://
[Link]
[Link]/10.1155/2012/101968.
[6] Healey Trulsrud T, Van Der Leer J. Towards a positive energy balance: a
[30] Royo P, Ferreira VJ, López-Sabirón AM, Ferreira G. Hybrid diagnosis to
comparative analysis of the planning and design of four positive energy districts
characterise the energy and environmental enhancement of photovoltaic modules
and neighbourhoods in Norway and Sweden. Energy Build 2024;318:114429.
[Link]

15
L.Q. Luu et al. Energy 333 (2025) 137500

using smart materials. Energy 2016;101:174–89. [Link] [49] European Parliament. Directive 2012/19/EU of the european parliament and of the
energy.2016.01.101. council of 4 July 2012 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). 2012.
[31] Li Q, Monticelli C, Kutlu A, Zanelli A. Feasibility of textile envelope integrated [50] Frischknecht R, Itten R, Sinha P, De Wild-Scholten M, Zhang J, Heath GA, Olson C.
flexible photovoltaic in Europe: carbon footprint assessment and life cycle cost Life cycle inventories and life cycle assessments of photovoltaic systems. No.
analysis. J Clean Prod 2023;430:139716. [Link] NREL/TP-6A20-73853, 1561526, [Link] 2020.
jclepro.2023.139716. [51] IEA. Advances in photovoltaic module recycling literature review and update to
[32] Li Z, Zhang W, Xie L, Wang W, Tian H, Chen M, Li J. Life cycle assessment of semi- empirical life cycle inventory data and patent review. 2024.
transparent photovoltaic window applied on building. J Clean Prod 2021;295: [52] IEA. Life cycle inventory of current photovoltaic module recycling processes in
126403. [Link] Europe. 2017.
[33] Menoufi K, Chemisana D, Rosell JI. Life cycle assessment of a building integrated [53] Ecoinvent, n.d. Ecoinvent database version 3.7 [WWW Document]. URL https:
concentrated photovoltaic scheme. Appl Energy 2013;111:505–14. [Link] //[Link]/the-ecoinvent-database/.
org/10.1016/[Link].2013.05.037. [54] Huijbregts MAJ, Steinmann ZJN, Elshout PMF, Stam G, Verones F, Vieira M,
[34] Parascanu MM, Keiner D, Breyer C, Macé P, Lizasoain-Arteaga E. Comprehensive Zijp M, Hollander A, van Zelm R. ReCiPe2016: a harmonised life cycle impact
prospective environmental assessment of innovative photovoltaic technologies: assessment method at midpoint and endpoint level. Int J Life Cycle Assess 2017;22:
integration into electricity grids in Finland, Germany, and Spain. Energy 2025;315: 138–47. [Link]
134454. [Link] [55] Khan AA, Molina P, Reichel C, Protti AA, Neuhaus DH, Rentsch J, Nold S. The
[35] Battisti R, Corrado A. Evaluation of technical improvements of photovoltaic European Union’s ecodesign directive – analysis of carbon footprint assessment
systems through life cycle assessment methodology. Energy 2005;30:952–67. methodology and implications for photovoltaic module manufacturers. Sol RRL
[Link] 2024;8:2301011. [Link]
[36] Lamnatou Chr, Baig H, Chemisana D, Mallick TK. Dielectric-based 3D building- [56] Luu LQ, Cellura M, Longo S, Guarino F. A comparison of the life-cycle impacts of
integrated concentrating photovoltaic modules: an environmental life-cycle the concentrating solar power with the product environmental footprint and
assessment. Energy Build 2017;138:514–25. [Link] ReCiPe methods. Energies 2024;17:4461. [Link]
enbuild.2016.12.038. [57] Virtuani A, Borja Block A, Wyrsch N, Ballif C. The carbon intensity of integrated
[37] Sierra D, Aristizábal AJ, Hernández JA, Ospina D. Life cycle analysis of a building photovoltaics. Joule 2023;7:2511–36. [Link]
integrated photovoltaic system operating in Bogotá, Colombia. Energy Rep 2020;6: joule.2023.09.010.
10–9. [Link] [58] European Commission, n.d. Waste from electrical and electronic equipment.
[38] Fares H, Lobaccaro G, Gazbour N, Rasmussen FN, Chèze D, Le Pierrès N, Wurtz E. [59] Philipps DS, Ise F, Warmuth W, GmbH PP. Photovoltaics report. 2023.
A methodology for assessing environmental impact of building integrated PV in [60] Gholami H, Nils Røstvik H, Manoj Kumar N, Chopra SS. Lifecycle cost analysis
low carbon footprint electricity generation context. Energy Build 2025;329: (LCCA) of tailor-made building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) façade:
115219. [Link] solsmaragden case study in Norway. Sol Energy 2020;211:488–502. [Link]
[39] ISO. ISO 14040: environmental management -Life cycle assessment - principles and org/10.1016/[Link].2020.09.087.
framework. 1997. [61] IEA. Building integrated photovoltaic policies in Italy. 2021.
[40] Horne R. Life cycle assessment: origins, principles and context. In: Life cycle [62] Nonni E, Matteocci F, Serenelli L, Castriotta LA, Barichello J, Magliano E, Di
assessment - principles, practice and prospects. Collingwood: CSIRO Publishing; Girolamo D, Martini L, Menchini F, Izzi M, Di Carlo A, Tucci M. A holistic approach
2009. p. 1–8. for a large area (>1 cm2) mechanically stacked two terminal tandem perovskite/
[41] Luu LQ, Longo S, Cellura M, Sanseverino ER. A review on consequential life cycle silicon heterojunction with efficiencies above 30 %. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells
assessment in the power sector. Int J Sustain Dev Plann 2020;15:1157–68. https:// 2025;292:113740. [Link]
[Link]/10.18280/ijsdp.150802. [63] Barichello J, Paci B, Moras P, Hajhemati J, Generosi A, Riva FR, Cacovich S,
[42] ISO. Environmental management - life cycle assessment – principles and Jafarzadeh F, Brunetti F, Carlo AD, Matteocci F. Exploiting the impact of ionic
framework, ISO 14040:2006. Geneva: International Organization for liquids and light exposure on performance of fully inorganic CsPbBr3 semi-
Standardization; 2006. transparent perovskite solar cells. Sol Energy 2025;287:113237. [Link]
[43] ISO. Environmental management - life cycle assessment – requirements and 10.1016/[Link].2024.113237.
guidelines, ISO 14044:2006. Geneva: International Organization for [64] Ghosh S, Emeka OC, Cho S, Di Carlo A, Kim J. Advancements in see-through solar
Standardization; 2006. technology employing ITO/Ag/ITO spectral beam splitter. Opt Mater 2025;166:
[44] Frischknecht R, Heath G, Raugei M, Sinha P, de Wild-Scholten M. Methodology 117191. [Link]
guidelines on life cycle assessment of photovoltaic electricity (no. IEA-PVPS T12- [65] IWG PV. A strategic plan for research and innovation to relaunch the Italian
08:2016). International Energy Agency; 2016. photovoltaic sector and contribute to the targets of the national energy and climate
[45] Frischknecht R, Stolz P, Heath G, Raugei M, Sinha P, Wild-Scholten De. plan. 2020.
Methodology guidelines on life cycle assessment of photovoltaic 2020. 2020. [66] Ardente F, Beccali G, Cellura M. Eco-sustainable energy and environmental
[46] EC. Understanding product environmental footprint and organisation strategies in design for recycling: the software “ENDLESS.”. Ecol Model 2003;163:
environmental footprint methods [WWW Document]. URL, [Link] 101–18.
eu/ui/group/6e9b7f79-da96-4a53-956f-e8f62c9d7fed/library/537534a4-9c76 [67] Luu LQ, Cellura M, Nguyen TQ, Nguyen HN, Nguyen QN. The aggregation issue in
-40a1-b488-e9127db2befd/details?download=true; 2021. quantifying sectorial and national GHG emissions using H-MRIO models. In: 2023
[47] Lichtenvort K, Rebitzer G, Huppes G, Ciroth A, Seuring S, Schmidt WP, Gunther E, Asia meeting on environment and electrical engineering (EEE-AM). Presented at
Hoppe H, Swarr T, Hunkeler D. History of life cycle costing, its categorization and the 2023 Asia meeting on environment and electrical engineering (EEE-AM).
its basic framework. In: Hunkeler D, Lichtenvort K, Rebitzer G, editors. Hanoi, Vietnam: IEEE; 2023. p. 1–7. [Link]
Environmental life cycle costing. New York: CRC Press and SETAC Press; 2008. AM58328.2023.10395611.
[48] Energy Matching, n.d. Italian demo site. [68] Sustainability PRé. SimaPro. 2021.

16