e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 13 (2025) 101091

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

e-Prime - Advances in Electrical

Engineering, Electronics and Energy
journal homepage: [Link]/locate/prime

Integrated simulation and optimisation framework for techno-economic

evaluation of BIPV systems: A Scottish case study
Muhammad Fariz a , Mohammed Sadeq a,* , Nazmi Sellami a,*
a
School of Computing, Engineering & the Built Environment, Merchiston Campus, Edinburgh Napier University, 10 Colinton Road, Edinburgh EH10 5DT, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) offers an innovative approach to achieving net-zero energy buildings by
Building Integrated Photovoltaic System (BIPV) seamlessly integrating solar energy systems into architectural designs. However, the widespread adoption of
Annual Energy Generated (AEG), Levelized BIPV systems is often hindered by concerns over high initial costs and uncertain economic returns. This study
Cost of Energy (LCOE)
conducts a comprehensive techno-economic assessment of BIPV systems in Scotland to evaluate their energy
Payback Period (PP)
generation potential, cost-effectiveness, and financial viability across different urban locations. A 1 kWp grid-
connected BIPV system was simulated using PVsyst software for four distinct urban areas in Scot­
land—Aberdeen, Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Portree. The analysis considered 10 different tilt angles (0◦ to 90◦ in
10◦ increments) and 8 azimuth angles (-180◦ to 180◦ in 45◦ increments) to cover a wide range of building
orientations. Key performance indicators, including Annual Energy Generation (AEG), Levelized Cost of Energy
(LCOE), and Payback Period (PP), were evaluated to determine the feasibility of BIPV systems in these locations.
Additionally, MATLAB was used solely to generate 3D graphs for clearer visualisation and more effective
analysis, utilising the data obtained from PVsyst simulations.
The findings reveal that Aberdeen provides the most favourable conditions for BIPV deployment, achieving an
AEG of 1167 kWh/year, an LCOE of 0.0606 GBP/kWh, and a PP of 7.2 years at an optimal orientation of
0◦ azimuth and 40◦ tilt. Conversely, Portree exhibited the least favourable outcomes, with an AEG of 312 kWh/
year, an LCOE of 0.2268 GBP/kWh, and a PP of 17.4 years at 180◦ azimuth and 90◦ tilt. These results offer
valuable insights for policymakers, solar developers, and building designers, helping optimise Scotland’s BIPV
deployment strategies for enhanced economic and environmental benefits.

1. Introduction evaluations persists. This research aims to bridge that gap by conducting
a comprehensive techno-economic assessment of BIPV systems in four
The building sector is responsible for approximately 39 % of green­ diverse Scottish urban areas, analysing a wide range of panel orienta­
house gas (GHG) emissions [1], consequently, nations have established tions and tilt angles (80 combinations in total). Unlike prior studies, this
climate pledges, known as Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), research: (i) Evaluates BIPV feasibility across multiple locations with
which outline targets and commitments to lower emissions and enhance varying meteorological conditions. (ii) Incorporates 3D MATLAB visu­
resilience to the impacts of climate change. Among the various renew­ alisation to enhance clarity in energy generation trends. (iii) Considers
able technologies, Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) stands out the impact of both panel tilt and azimuth angles in economic assess­
as a promising solution for achieving net-zero energy buildings by ments, which is rarely explored in similar studies.
seamlessly integrating solar panels into building facades or roofs [2,3]. By addressing these aspects, this study provides valuable insights for
However, there remains a significant gap in understanding the stakeholders, including policymakers, urban planners, and solar tech­
techno-economic feasibility of BIPV across diverse geographic and cli­ nology developers, to optimise BIPV implementation in Scotland and
matic conditions, particularly in regions like Scotland, where solar en­ other regions with similar climates.
ergy potential is often underestimated.
Many previous studies have assessed the economic feasibility of BIPV
systems [4,5], but a lack of location-specific and orientation-dependent

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [Link]@[Link] (M. Sadeq), [Link]@[Link] (N. Sellami).

[Link]
Received 31 December 2024; Received in revised form 24 July 2025; Accepted 4 August 2025
Available online 7 August 2025
2772-6711/Crown Copyright © 2025 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license ([Link]
M. Fariz et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 13 (2025) 101091

2. BIPV context in Scotland consumption in residential and commercial buildings accounts for >40
% of Scotland’s CO2 emissions. Consequently, the Scottish construction
Solar energy potential can generally be assessed through four ap­ sector plays a pivotal role in achieving these emissions reduction targets.
proaches: theoretical, geographical, technical, and economic potential This role was emphasised in the 2007 Sullivan Report [8], whose rec­
[6].The theoretical potential refers to the availability of solar irradiance ommendations were integrated into Scottish construction codes in 2015.
at a specific location selected for PV installation, without considering These changes have significantly influenced the adoption of solar energy
any constraints, whether geographical or technical. Geographical po­ and other renewable technologies in newly built homes across Scotland.
tential focuses on the area or land suitable for solar energy production. Section 6 of the building regulations outlines the specific impacts on the
Technical potential, on the other hand, addresses the efficiency of newly built housing sector in Scotland. The primary objective of this
photovoltaic modules. Finally, economic potential represents the regulation is to promote the development of energy-efficient buildings
portion of technical potential that assesses the economic feasibility of with minimal carbon dioxide emissions. The regulations provide a
the system. A region’s theoretical potential is the total amount of solar comprehensive framework for how building design and architecture can
radiation it receives, unaffected by geometrical or technological limi­ contribute to achieving these low-carbon goals. Furthermore, they
tations. For instance, solar PV potential in UK, global horizontal irra­ highlight the increased potential for integrating renewable energy sys­
diance (GHI), As seen in Fig. (1) it explains the theoretical potential in tems, such as BIPV into building designs.
the UK. This GHI map includes direct and indirect irradiance, which For this study as shown in Fig. 2, the urban areas of Aberdeen,
helps both BIPV and PV system installations. The geographical potential Edinburgh, Kirkwall, and Portree in Scotland were selected to analyse
represents the total solar irradiance received by the buildings within the geographical potential of each location, taking into account their
that specific city. This study focuses on the solar irradiance potential of unique climatic characteristics and meteorological (Meteo) values. The
BIPV systems in four locations in Scotland. PVsyst software was utilised to collect and analyse monthly Meteo data
The potential of BIPV in Scotland is quantified through a compre­ and location-specific parameters, enabling a comprehensive evaluation
hensive economic assessment. The Scottish Government is legally obli­ of the geographical potential of these sites. The geographical data
gated to meet greenhouse gas emission reduction targets outlined in the considered in this study included key factors such as temperature, hu­
Climate Change (Scotland) Act [7], which includes an interim goal of a midity, and detailed Meteo values. The Meteo parameters incorporated
42 % reduction in emissions (relative to 1990 levels) by 2020. Energy into the analysis comprised global horizontal irradiance, diffuse

.Fig. 1. The theoretical potential map of solar irradiance in UK [9].

2
M. Fariz et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 13 (2025) 101091

.Fig. 2. Selected urban areas in Scotland.

irradiance, extraterrestrial irradiance, clearness index, ambient tem­ Tiagarajan and Yun Ii Go [14] performed a simulation of BIPV design to
perature, and wind velocity, all tailored to the specific conditions of each create an energy-efficient building model using Autodesk Revit. The
location. These variables were crucial in assessing the suitability and research aimed to improve the understanding of the energy performance
performance of BIPV systems in diverse Scottish environments. of the selected BIPV products. The results showed that amorphous sili­
con glazing generates more energy compared to single- and
3. Literature review double-glazing panels in rooms with high window-to-wall ratios
(WWR). A Study revealed that BIPV systems have the potential to ach­
Numerous research undertakings have used simulation models to ieve system prices approximately 10 % lower than ground-mount PV
assess the economic feasibility of BIPV within particular cities, module systems, by viewing the BIPV system in conjunction with the entire
technologies, or building elements. Sonali et al.[10]. analysed the building envelope as a singular element, Bonomo et al. [15] quantified
essential factors in PV system installation, emphasising array placement, the economic value of BIPV. The authors incorporated the cost of con­
including tilt angle and row spacing, to minimise horizontal shading. structing the building envelope in their calculations [12], it was found
Kong and colleagues [11] assessed energy efficiency strategies for BIPV that highlighting the indirect benefits of BIPV often plays a key role in
in China, but their study focused primarily on energy savings rather than encouraging investment to include the cost of constructing the building
economic feasibility. Whereas James et al. [12] compared different envelope in their BIPV formulations. Additionally, the study revealed
module technologies for BIPV applications but did not analyse optimal that emphasising these indirect advantages of BIPV is particularly
panel orientations across different geographic locations. Abdul Hazeem effective in motivating investors to commit to specific investments. Jelle
Hamzah and Yun Ii Go [13] carried out an assessment of BIPV perfor­ et al. [16], reviewed the recent BIPV technology, since BIPV applications
mance on a high-rise building in a tropical climate using BIM software, typically follow the changes in PV cells, they initially provided some
specifically Autodesk Revit, complemented by detailed analysis through information about existing PV technologies and their classification and
PVsyst software. The semi-transparent/coloured PV active coating type concluded that new PV technologies were more cost-effective and effi­
demonstrated the highest energy production, achieving approximately cient, which would shorten the payback period (PP) of the BIPV system.
75 % of the output of a conventional PV module. Whereas Thanesh In the economic feasibility assessment of BIPV, the Levelized Cost of

3
M. Fariz et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 13 (2025) 101091

Energy (LCOE) E also serves as a key metric for evaluating the unit cost • Proposed a novel approach for stakeholders to improve the techno-
of electricity production (in kWh or MWh) over the project lifetime [17]. economic assessment for BIPV systems in multiple diverse locations.
This approach is widely employed by policymakers, project managers,
investors, and researchers to evaluate the feasibility and market 4. Methodology
competitiveness of various technologies, thereby informing decisions on
whether to advance investments in specific renewable energy projects There are several ways to evaluate the potential of a project’s eco­
[18,19]. Furthermore, policymakers and legislators can utilise the LCOE nomic feasibility. This study is focused on the techno-economic evalu­
method to inform the development of renewable energy policies. When ation of four urban areas in Scotland, particularly the AEG, LCOE, and
evaluating the support schemes for carbon-based versus renewable en­ PP of the BIPV system in various locations, orientations, and tilt angles.
ergy technologies, authorities commonly rely on LCOE as a key This was carried out considering variations in energy generation based
decision-making parameter [20]. Mohammed et al. [21] developed a on the building envelopes designed for integration with the PV system;
MATLAB code and an online techno-economic PV pre-sizing tool used to the methodology overview is illustrated in Fig. 3.
predict the energy generated and economic factors like LCOE. Herein, a The LCOE for a project is calculated by dividing the total lifetime cost
BIPV project is considered financially viable if its LCOE is lower than the by the total lifetime energy generation. The lifetime generation cost is
current grid price whereas the term "grid parity" is used when the LCOE determined by considering the project’s capital cost, annual operational
of BIPV matches the grid price, indicating that the cost of producing and expenses, and maintenance costs.
exporting energy to the grid is equivalent to the cost of purchasing it
Total costs
from the grid [22]. The complexity of comparing economic study out­ Levelized cost of energy =
Total electricity generated
comes arises from the varying approaches used to calculate and define
solar potential. This is evident in the literature review of these relevant More specifically, the LCOE represents the cost that, when dis­
studies [6,23,24]. counted to the base year and applied to each unit of energy generated by
The techno-economic potential of a BIPV system is primarily influ­ the system throughout the analysis period, equates to the total life-cycle
enced by the performance of the photovoltaic (PV) system, which is cost. The LCOE methodology is commonly used to rank the cost-
affected by ambient temperature and the availability of solar irradiance effectiveness of various energy generation technologies, serving as an
at the selected location [25]. Therefore, during the techno-economic abstraction of real-world complexities. When calculating LCOE for pol­
design phase, it is crucial to account for variations in these inputs, as icy assessments, it is crucial to base calculations on accurate assump­
they can significantly impact system performance. The electric energy tions and to include all relevant system costs, such as installation,
produced by the PV system, which directly influences the economic financing, depreciation, land, insurance, operation, and maintenance
feasibility of the system, is referred to as the economic potential. Hasan expenses. Additionally, factors such as carbon emissions and panel ef­
Baig et al. [26] prepared a model of a building-integrated Concentrating ficiency should also be incorporated. The following equation, derived
Photovoltaic (BICPV) system which mainly aimed to produce maximum from previous studies, can be used to evaluate the LCOE of PV systems
electric performance using a limited area by attaching a dielectric-based [32,33].
Symmetric Elliptical Hyperboloid (SEH) concentrating element on a ∑ Ln +Cn ∑N Bn +(Dn +In )t
silicon solar cell, but did not evaluate the impact of tilt and azimuth C0 − B0 + Nn=1 (1+k)n − n=1 (1+k)t
Rn
− (1+k)n
LCOE = ∑N E (1)
angles on energy generation. Additionally, with the use of air or water as n
n=1 (1+k)n
a medium for cooling the PV module and removing heat, the PV systems
can be designed and operated as photovoltaic thermal (PVT) systems where:
[27–29], It has the potential to generate both electrical and thermal
energy without compromising efficiency [30,31]. For instance, in a BIPV • C0 = initial investment cost
system with air ventilation, the PV system is usually mounted on the • B0 = initial benefit
building’s roof or façade. Naturally occurring ventilation enables fresh • Ln = loan payment in the n-th year
air to circulate behind the BIPV system, effectively cooling it. When the • Bn = benefit in the n-th year
system uses the extracted warm air for heating, it evolves into an • Dn = depreciation in the n-th year
advanced configuration known as a Building-Integrated Photovoltaic • In = interest paid in the n-th year
Thermal System (BIPVT). • Rn = residual value at the n-th year
While these studies provide valuable insights, they lack a compre­ • En = energy produced in the n-th year
hensive techno-economic evaluation that accounts for variations in • t = tax rate
building orientation and regional solar potential. Our study fills this gap
by evaluating the techno-economic potential of BIPV systems in four The payback period of the BIPV project is generally constrained to a
urban areas across Scotland, with a particular focus on the Annual En­ maximum of 25 years, which aligns with the minimum life expectancy of
ergy Generated (AEG), and key economic indicators such as Levelized photovoltaic materials used in BIPV applications. Manufacturers of BIPV
Cost of Energy (LCOE) and Payback Period (PP). The optimal orientation panels typically guarantee that, after 25 years of operation, the panels
was successfully identified within the resolution of the predefined grid, will still produce at least 80 % of their initial rated peak power.
while advanced metaheuristic optimisation techniques were not Therefore, a payback period within 25 years indicates that the invest­
considered. Here, the assessment considers variations in the building ment will be recouped before the system’s guaranteed operational life­
envelope’s orientation and tilt angle for a 1 kWp system, aiming to span. Conversely, a payback period exceeding this duration is deemed
analyse the economic performance of BIPV systems with diverse char­ economically non-viable. This study calculates PP using PVsyst soft­
acteristics. The Contribution can be summarised as below points: ware; it represents the years required for the cumulative, non-
discounted annual cash flows to equal or exceed the initial non-
• Investigated the Effect of variation of both panel orientation and tilt discounted investment amount [34]. Alternatively, the PP can be
angle on the BIPV system viability by PVsyst software in 10 different defined as the duration needed to recover the investment amount [35].
tilt angles, and 8 azimuth angles, spanning from − 180◦ to 180◦ in However, to calculate the payback period for solar PV projects, the
increments of 45◦ essential parameters include the system’s installation capacity based on
• For more detailed analysis, the obtained results were plotted in a 3D site conditions and the expected electricity production in kWh [36]. Key
graph using MATLAB software to clearly identify the optimum factors influence the calculation of the PP, including the project’s
location.

4
M. Fariz et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 13 (2025) 101091

.Fig. 3. Overview of methodology.

installation cost, the estimated annual electricity production, the energy

Table 1
price per kWh, and the inflation rate. For typical solar PV installations,
Financial parameters for Scotland BIPV projects.
the average PP is estimated to be between 6 and 8 years [37]. However,
a PP exceeding 10 years is often considered a significant barrier to Financial parameters Unit values
developing and promoting solar projects. Total installation cost (GBP/ kWp) 1650
Project lifetime (Years) 25
Initial investment Inflation variation per year ( % / Year) 1.5
Payback Period = (2)
Annual saving Discount rate variation ( % / Year) 1
Production variation (degradation) ( % / Year) − 0.50
Fixed feed-in tariff (SEG) (GBP / kWh) 0.075
4.1. Input parameters Annual tariff variation ( % / Year) 2.16
Duration of tariff warranty (Years) 25
Fixed consumption tariff (GBP / kWh) 0.34
It is essential to apply financial parameters and consumption profile Annual tariff variation ( % / Year) 0.69
data for economic calculations. These financial parameters are deter­ Average annual consumption per household (kWh/year) 1802
mined based on government economic and energy policies. All calcu­ Start year 2022
lations are performed using PVsyst software, without the integration of
AI or machine learning techniques. To conduct the analysis, it was
the direct current (DC) electricity generated by the modules into alter­
necessary to obtain key financial indicators, including the electricity
nating current (AC) suitable for grid supply.
tariff rate, the annual electricity consumption per average household in
This study employs PVsyst software to evaluate the energy genera­
the selected locations, and the electricity price inflation rate. According
tion potential of the 1 kWp grid-connected BIPV system across four
to the UK’s Consumer Prices Index (CPI), the average electricity tariff
Scottish urban areas. A unique aspect of this study is the consideration of
inflation rate is approximately 1.5 % [38], with the average electricity
80 different panel orientation configurations, covering 10 different tilt
price being 34 pence per kWh [39]. However, the UK’s feed-in tariff
angles ranging from 0◦ to 90◦ in increments of 10◦ and 8 azimuth angles
scheme changed on 1 April 2019, affecting electricity exports to the grid
spanning − 180◦ to 180◦ in increments of 45◦ This approach ensures an
from energy production units. The new scheme, known as the Smart
exhaustive assessment of how BIPV orientation impacts economic
Export Guarantee (SEG), was introduced on 1 January 2020 to promote
viability. Unlike conventional studies, this research introduces a hybrid
carbon emission reduction in electricity production [40]. An analytical
simulation approach by combining PVsyst-generated energy outputs
study by D.C. Jordan and S.R. Kurtz [41], on the degradation of
with a custom MATLAB-based 3D modelling tool to visualise energy
photovoltaic materials reports an average degradation rate of 0.5 % per
generation trends and economic feasibility.
year, with an average lifespan of 25 years for solar panels. For the
A multi-layered economic analysis framework is integrated into the
economic evaluation in this study, the SEG price has been set at 7.5
study, incorporating a dynamic cost-benefit model that factors in real-
pence per kWh. The remaining parameters, such as project costs
time energy pricing, government incentives, and localised financial
comprising installation, operation, and maintenance, are based on
parameters relevant to the UK market. In addition, a novel sensitivity
average expenses for implementing a 1 kWp PV system in Scotland, as
analysis is employed to assess the impact of variations in environmental
outlined in Table 1 below.
parameters, including temperature fluctuations, solar radiation levels,
and potential shading effects, on the economic viability of BIPV in­
4.2. PVsyst simulation software stallations. Furthermore, this study introduces an urban adaptability
assessment, evaluating the integration of BIPV across different Scottish
PVsyst software is a widely recognised tool for the design, simula­ architectural typologies to determine its practicality in diverse urban
tion, and performance analysis of photovoltaic (PV) systems, utilising environments. By implementing these methodological advancements,
extensive meteorological data to enhance accuracy and reliability [42]. this study provides a more nuanced and location-specific evaluation of
For this study, a 1 kWp on-grid PV system was designed using mono­ BIPV feasibility, addressing the limitations of previous research that
crystalline PV panels, selected for their high energy conversion effi­ relied on generic simulation approaches. This innovative framework not
ciency [43]. The system includes a 1 kW, 50–500 V inverter, which only enhances the accuracy of techno-economic assessments but also
performs multiple critical functions such as power conditioning, system offers a practical decision-making tool for policymakers, architects, and
control and protection, maximum power point tracking, and converting

5
M. Fariz et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 13 (2025) 101091

urban planners aiming to optimise BIPV adoption in Scotland and high-latitude regions, our results show that Scotland’s Smart Export
similar climatic regions. Despite PVsyst being a widely accepted soft­ Guarantee (SEG) significantly enhances financial feasibility. This makes
ware for photovoltaic performance simulation, it has inherent limita­ BIPV a more attractive option, even in areas with lower solar radiation.
tions that may introduce uncertainties in the results. One key limitation This study acknowledges the challenges and complexities involved in
is its reliance on default meteorological databases, which may not al­ modelling regulatory scenarios. Nevertheless, our study presents a
ways capture localised microclimatic variations accurately. The year-to- practical framework applicable to other regions with similar climatic
year fluctuations in solar radiation introduce an RMS error of approxi­ and economic conditions. Such findings are crucial for policymakers in
mately 4–5 %, and discrepancies greater than 10 % can be observed regions with comparable solar radiation profiles, as they can tailor
between different meteorological data sources. Climate evolution and financial incentives to improve the adoption of BIPV systems, supporting
long-term weather variations further contribute to these uncertainties. both sustainability goals and energy security.
Furthermore, the temperature correction factors in PVsyst are based on The annual energy generated by the BIPV system for the four selected
standard conditions, which may not fully reflect the real-world thermal locations, based on financial parameters and various combinations of tilt
behaviour of BIPV systems integrated into building envelopes. and azimuth angles, is illustrated in Figs. 4–7. These graphs (X: azimuth
angle, Y: tilt angle, Z: annual energy generated) consistently show that
5. Results and discussion maximum energy generation occurs at 0◦ azimuth and 40◦ tilt. Since all
investigated urban areas are in the Northern Hemisphere, south-facing
The building sector has the highest potential for energy consumption orientations typically receive the highest solar irradiance. In contrast,
among all sectors [43]. Most research has focused on factors such as for locations in the Southern Hemisphere, the optimal azimuth angle
initial investments, electricity costs, climatic conditions, and irradiance would be north-facing [45].
levels when assessing the economic viability of Building-Integrated Simulations also revealed that the lowest energy production consis­
Photovoltaic (BIPV) systems. However, this study takes a novel tently occurs at an azimuth angle of 180◦ , further emphasising the
approach by analysing how façade orientation impacts both energy importance of panel orientation. The optimal tilt angle of 40◦ yields the
generation and financial profitability. best economic performance, as reflected in LCOE and payback period
BIPV systems are well known to outperform traditional photovoltaic metrics. In Scotland, south-facing BIPV façades demonstrate an average
systems [44], particularly in terms of land utilisation and integration payback period of 7.2–7.4 years, significantly shorter than other azi­
into buildings, such as façades and roofs. Understanding how the muth orientations.
placement of BIPV systems on specific building components contributes Although the payback period can vary depending on factors such as
to green energy production is essential. This knowledge is especially energy consumption patterns, electricity costs, installation expenses,
valuable for architects and solar PV designers, as it enables them to and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs, this study simplifies the
optimise economic outcomes in their projects. analysis by not accounting for transmission losses or minor variables.
The results are based on PVsyst, which shows that Aberdeen achieves Instead, we focus on the core relationship between façade orientation
the best techno-economic performance, with an annual energy genera­ and economic viability.
tion (AEG) of 1167 kWh/year, a Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) of Figs. 8–11 illustrate LCOE variations, while Figs. 12–15 present the
0.0606 GBP/kWh, and a payback period (PP) of 7.2 years at optimal corresponding payback periods. These values, obtained through
orientations (0◦ azimuth and 40◦ tilt). Conversely, Portree exhibits the MATLAB-based 3D graph generation, provide a detailed analysis across
lowest economic viability due to its lower solar irradiation levels. These multiple locations. Table 2 further highlights that south-facing façades
findings align with those of Kong et al. [10], who demonstrated that (0◦ azimuth, 40◦ tilt) offer greater economic feasibility due to higher
solar energy generation potential varies significantly based on solar irradiation.
geographical factors. This highlights the importance of location-specific As a practical application, Fig. 16 provides a visualisation specif­
assessments. Furthermore, our methodology can be adapted for use in ically for Edinburgh, illustrating all possible orientations of a building
other regions with similar climatic conditions, offering a scalable model for BIPV façade installation. This tool is designed for architects and
for integrating BIPV systems into urban areas worldwide. This flexibility system developers, highlighting the profitability rates at optimal tilt
supports a broader real-time application in energy-efficient building angles (30–40◦ ). By incorporating this graphical representation into
designs globally. economic assessments, stakeholders can better evaluate the impact of
Our study also builds on James et al. [11], who emphasised the role façade orientation on energy generation and financial feasibility. This
of module placement in economic feasibility. By incorporating a broader visualisation tool can be integrated into real-time design software,
range of orientation configurations and financial incentives tailored to allowing for immediate assessments of various orientations during the
Scotland’s energy market, our research provides a more comprehensive design phase of construction projects. Such tools make the design and
perspective. integration of BIPV systems more accessible, even to non-specialists,
Unlike Baig et al. [25], who primarily explored Building-Integrated enhancing the potential for widespread adoption of renewable energy
Concentrated Photovoltaics (BICPV) without a robust financial anal­ technologies in urban environments.
ysis, our study integrates both technical and economic metrics to offer a Furthermore, such visual tools enhance accessibility, allowing even
holistic assessment. Similarly, Bonomo et al. [14] examined BIPV costs non-specialists to understand the significance of BIPV façade orienta­
during the early design phase but lacked empirical validation across tion. This approach promotes the integration of BIPV systems into urban
multiple urban locations. Our research addresses this gap through planning and supports informed decision-making for energy-efficient
simulation-based modeling and comparative analysis across diverse building practices.
Scottish climates.
Our findings reinforce the critical role of orientation in maximising 6. Conclusion
BIPV performance. South-facing façades (0◦ azimuth, 40◦ tilt) yield the
highest energy output and the shortest payback periods, aligning with The primary objective of this study was to assess the viability of BIPV
Reichelstein and Sahoo [19], who identified optimal solar configura­ systems as an envelope material for the entire exterior of the building
tions for economic efficiency. However, our research extends this by with various orientations across four urban areas in Scotland. The study
demonstrating that improper orientation (e.g., 180◦ azimuth and 90◦ incorporated both the social and environmental benefits of BIPV systems
tilt) can increase LCOE by nearly 300 %. This underscores the impor­ into the economic analysis, aiming to enhance the understanding of
tance of strategic panel placement in urban environments. BIPV economic feasibility and their potential as a building envelope
While Nishimura et al. [35] discussed payback period limitations in solution. The findings showed that Aberdeen achieved the best techno-

6
M. Fariz et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 13 (2025) 101091

.Fig. 4. Annual energy generated in Edinburgh.

.Fig. 5. Annual energy generated in Aberdeen.

.Fig. 6. Annual energy generated in Kirkwall.

7
M. Fariz et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 13 (2025) 101091

.Fig. 7. Annual energy generated in Portree.

.Fig. 8. LCOE Assessment for the BIPV System in Edinburgh.

.Fig. 9. LCOE Assessment for the BIPV System in Aberdeen.

8
M. Fariz et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 13 (2025) 101091

.Fig. 10. LCOE Assessment for the BIPV System Kirkwall.

.Fig. 11. LCOE Assessment for the BIPV System in Portree.

.Fig. 12. Payback period analysis for the BIPV System in Edinburgh.

9
M. Fariz et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 13 (2025) 101091

.Fig. 13. Payback period analysis the BIPV System for in Aberdeen.

.Fig. 14. Payback period analysis the BIPV System in Kirkwall.

.Fig. 15. Payback period analysis for the BIPV System in Portree.

10
M. Fariz et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 13 (2025) 101091

Table 2
Summary of the overall study’s main outcomes.
Scotland BIPV Optimum Annual Energy Minimum Payback Period (PP) at Payback Period (PP) LCOE at optimum LCOE at worse
projects Generated (kWh/year) Annual Energy optimum orientation Payback at worse orientation (GBP/ kWh) orientation
Generated (kWh/ (Years) orientation (GBP/ kWh)
year) (Years)

Edinburgh 1121 321 7.4 17.1 0.0631 0.2205

Aberdeen 1167 323 7.2 17.2 0.0606 0.2191
Kirkwall 1143 331 7.3 16.8 0.0618 0.2134
Portree 1111 312 7.4 17.4 0.0636 0.2268

.Fig. 16. Pictorial representation of a BIPV system orientation-based economic viability in Edinburgh.

economic performance, with an Annual Energy Generated (AEG) of relevant for regions like Scotland, where direct sunlight is limited during
1167 kWh/year, Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) of 0.0606 GBP/kWh non-summer months. By harnessing CPV technology, it may be possible
and a Payback Period (PP) of 7.2 years at the optimal orientation at (0◦ to ensure more consistent energy production throughout the year,
azimuth and 40◦ tilt) angles. However, Portree showed the lowest results thereby improving the reliability and efficiency of BIPV systems. Future
at (180◦ azimuth and 90◦ tilt) angles, with AEG, LCOE, and PP of 312 investigations should focus on optimising CPV integration within BIPV
kWh/year, 0.2268 GBP/kWh and 17.4 years respectively. A key systems, evaluating long-term performance, and assessing economic
conclusion of the study is that, in the context of Scotland, the con­ feasibility under varying climatic and geographic conditions. Hence,
struction of south-facing façades utilising BIPV systems is economically data-driven methods such as machine learning offer promising predic­
viable when the full range of social and environmental benefits is tive capabilities in BIPV applications; their practical implementation
considered. Furthermore, the findings suggest that the implementation requires extensive empirical datasets and a distinct methodological
of BIPV systems as a comprehensive building envelope could not only framework and is therefore identified as a valuable direction for future
offset the initial investment but may also generate revenue for the research.
building over time. The given analysis has the potential to assist end Fig. 10,Fig. 13,Fig. 14,Fig. 5,Fig. 6,Fig. 9.
users and architects in seeing the BIPV system as a viable solution for
building an envelope in Scotland or UK countries and direct govern­ CRediT authorship contribution statement
ments and decision-makers in promoting this technology through logical
subsidies and incentives. Muhammad Fariz: Writing – original draft, Software, Methodology,
It is now clear that the perception of BIPV technology as a useless Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization. Mohammed Sadeq:
solution for building envelope must shift. Instead, BIPV systems should Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Methodology, Investigation,
be recognised as a viable and effective choice for building envelopes, Supervision. Nazmi Sellami: Writing – review & editing, Validation,
regardless of orientation or direction. In other words, when architects Supervision, Project administration, Methodology, Conceptualization,
are selecting building envelope materials to meet the demands of clients Formal analysis, Visualization.
seeking environmentally friendly, energy-efficient structures, BIPV
should be viewed as a competitive option that offers distinct advantages. Declaration of competing interest
Not only does BIPV contribute to green energy production, but it also has
the potential to transform building façades into sources of revenue. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
For future research, comparative benchmarking with other regions interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
could complement this work in future studies to provide a global the work reported in this paper.
perspective, where exploring advanced technologies to enhance further
the economic viability of buildings and validation against measured data
Acknowledgement
is strongly recommended. One promising approach involves integrating
concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) technologies into BIPV systems. CPV
The authors acknowledge the support of Edinburgh Napier Univer­
systems have the capability to focus both diffuse and direct sunlight onto
sity for providing access to essential software tools, including PVsyst and
the solar cells, potentially increasing energy output. This is particularly
MATLAB, which were instrumental in conducting this study.

11
M. Fariz et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 13 (2025) 101091

Supplementary materials [29] F. Mohammadi, H. Gholami, M. Menhaj, Effect of ventilation on yearly

photovoltaic performance, in: 1st international conference on new research
achievements in electrical and computer engineering, 2016. IEEE.
Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in [30] B. Agrawal, G. Tiwari, Life cycle cost assessment of building integrated
the online version, at doi:10.1016/[Link].2025.101091. photovoltaic thermal (BIPVT) systems, Energy Build. 42 (9) (2010) 1472–1481.
[31] A. Ibrahim, et al., Efficiencies and improvement potential of building integrated
photovoltaic thermal (BIPVT) system, Energy Convers. Manage 77 (2014)
Data availability 527–534.
[32] M. Cambell, The Drivers of the Levelized Cost of Electricity for Utility-Scale
Data will be made available on request. Photovoltaics, SUNPOWER, 2008.
[33] O. Aldo, The recent change in the Italian policies for photovoltaics: effects on the
payback period and levelized cost of electricity of grid-connected photovoltaic
References systems installed in urban contexts, Energy 93 (2015) 1989–2005.
[34] Y. Li, C. Liu, Techno-economic analysis for constructing solar photovoltaic projects
[1] IRENA, Global Renewables Outlook: energy transformation 2050, Energy Transf. on building envelopes, Build. Environ. 127 (2018) 37–46.
(2020). [35] K. Branker, M.J.M. Pathak, J.M. Pearce, A review of solar photovoltaic levelized
[2] H. Gholami, H.N. Røstvik, D. Müller-Eie, Holistic economic analysis of building cost of electricity, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15 (9) (2011) 4470–4482.
integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) system: case studies evaluation, Energy Build. 203 [36] A. Nishimura, et al., Life cycle assessment and evaluation of energy payback time
(2019) 109461. on high-concentration photovoltaic power generation system, Appl. Energy 87 (9)
[3] R.J. Yang, P.X. Zou, Building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV): costs, benefits, risks, (2010) 2797–2807.
barriers and improvement strategy, Int. [Link]. Manag. 16 (1) (2016) 39–53. [37] R.H.E.M. Koppelaar, Solar-PV energy payback and net energy: meta-assessment of
[4] K.C. Nguyen, et al., Potential impacts of solar arrays on regional climate and on study quality, reproducibility, and results harmonisation, Renew. Sustain. Energy
array efficiency, Int. [Link]. 37 (11) (2017) 4053–4064. Rev. 72 (2017) 1241–1255.
[5] A. Armstrong, et al., Wind farm and solar park effects on plant–soil carbon cycling: [38] D Clark, CPI inflation rate for housing, water, electricity, gas and other fuels in the
uncertain impacts of changes in ground-level microclimate, Glob. Chang. Biol. 20 United Kingdom. 2023.
(6) (2014) 1699–1706. [39] NimbleFins, Average cost of electricity per kWh in the UK, Available from, htt
[6] K. Mainzer, et al., A high-resolution determination of the technical potential for ps://[Link]/average-cost-electricity-kwh-uk, 2023.
residential-roof-mounted photovoltaic systems in Germany, Sol. Energy 105 (2014) [40] Ofgem. Feed-in Tariffs (FIT), Environmental and social schemes, Available from,
715–731. [Link]
[7] Climate change (Scotland) Act, Acts of the Scottish Parliament 2009, Available cheme-closure, 2020.
from, [Link] 2009. [41] D.C. Jordan, S.R. Kurtz, Photovoltaic degradation rates—An analytical review,
[8] Sullivan, A low carbon strategy for Scotland: the Sullivan Report. 2009. Prog. Photovol.: Res. Appl. 21 (1) (2013) 12–29.
[9] M. Dhimish, et al., Preliminary Assessment of the Solar Resource in the United [42] C.P. Kandasamy, P. Prabu, K. Niruba, Solar potential assessment using PVSYST
Kingdom, Research Paper - University of Oxford, 2018. 2. software, in: 2013 International Conference on Green Computing, Communication
[10] S. Goel, B. Jena, R. Sharma, A case study on optimal tilt angle and spacing for and Conservation of Energy (ICGCE), 2013.
Rooftop Solar photovoltaic system at bhubaneswar, J. Mod. Technol. 01 (02) [43] V. Sarayu, M. VanithaSri, A. RamaKoteswaraRao, Performance analysis of mono
(2024) 121–131. crystalline, poly crystalline and thin film material based 6 × 6 T-C-T PV array
[11] X. Kong, S. Lu, Y. Wu, A review of building energy efficiency in China during under different partial shading situations, Optiker (Stuttg) 248 (2021) 168055.
"Eleventh five-Year Plan" period, Energy policy 41 (2012) 624–635.
[12] T. James, et al., Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) in the residential sector:
an analysis of installed rooftop system prices, Natl. Renew. Energy Lab.(NREL) Muhammed Fariz K. M. is a dedicated renewable energy
(2011). specialist. He holds a Master’s degree in Renewable Energy
[13] A.H. Hamzah, Y.I. Go, Design and assessment of building integrated PV (BIPV) from Edinburgh Napier University, Scotland, and a Bachelor’s
system towards net zero energy building for tropical climate. E-prime - advances in degree in Renewable Energy from Mahatma Gandhi University,
Electrical engineering, Electron. Energy (2023) 3. India. With experience in research and practical applications,
[14] T. Tiagarajan, Y.I. Go, Integration of BIPV design and energy efficient technologies Muhammed excels in the design and optimization of photo­
for low energy building in meeting net zero target. E-prime - advances in electrical voltaic systems and energy-efficient solutions. His work is
engineering, Electron. Energy 8 (2024) 100554. driven by a deep passion for advancing renewable energy
[15] F.F.P.D.B. P. Bonomo, I. Donsante, BIPV: building envelope solutions in a multi- technologies to promote sustainable development and address
criteria approach. A method for assessing life-cycle costs in the early design phase global energy challenges
Adv. Build. Energy Res. 11 (1) (2017) 104–129.
[16] B.P. Jelle, C. Breivik, H.D. Røkenes, Building integrated photovoltaic products: a
state-of-the-art review and future research opportunities, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol.
Cells 100 (2012) 69–96.
[17] J. Aldersey-Williams, T. Rubert, Levelised cost of energy–a theoretical justification
and critical assessment, Energy Policy 124 (2019) 169–179.
[18] W. Shen, et al., A comprehensive review of variable renewable energy levelized Mohammed Sadeq, a Mechanical Engineer with an MSc in
cost of electricity, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 133 (2020) 110301. Renewable Energy, is pursuing a PhD at Edinburgh Napier
[19] S. Reichelstein, A. Sahoo, Time of day pricing and the levelized cost of intermittent University. He has over six years of experience in academia, the
power generation, Energy Econ. 48 (2015) 97–108. private sector, organizational and regional roles in the field of
[20] Varro, L. and J. Ha, Projected Costs of Generating electricity–2015 Edition. Paris, solar energy, particularly in photovoltaic (PV) and building-
France, 2015. integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems. His research includes
[21] M. Sadeq, S. Abdellatif, PV-ON: an online/bilingual PV sizing tool for grid- fundamental and applied studies, focusing on developing PV
connected system, case studies in Egypt, Int. Trans. Electr. Energy Syst. 31 (7) sizing tools for grid-connected systems and optimizing cost-
(2021) e12910. effective and technologically efficient solutions for deploying
[22] F. Mohammadi, et al., Allocation of centralised energy storage system and its effect PV and BIPV systems
on daily grid energy generation cost, IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 32 (3) (2016)
2406–2416.
[23] M. Kaltschmitt, A. Wiese, Potentials and costs of regenerative sources of energy in
Baden-Wuerttemberg, Potentiale und Kosten regenerativer Energietraeger in
Baden-Wuerttemberg (1992).
[24] M. Kaltschmitt, A. Wiese, Erneuerbare Energieträger in Deutschland: Potentiale
und Kosten, Springer-Verlag, 2013. Dr Nazmi Sellami is an associate professor of mechanical en­
[25] E. Cuce, P.M. Cuce, T. Bali, An experimental analysis of illumination intensity and gineering at Edinburgh Napier University. His research is
temperature dependency of photovoltaic cell parameters, Appl. Energy 111 (2013) rooted in renewable energy systems, with a special focus on
374–382. solar energy, including the characterisation and design of
[26] H. Baig, N. Sellami, T.K. Mallick, Performance modeling and testing of a Building thermal and photovoltaic solar devices for various applica­
Integrated Concentrating Photovoltaic (BICPV) system, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. tions, especially for building integration. Dr Sellami has
Cells 134 (2015) 29–44. worked on multiple multidisciplinary projects, including
[27] H. Gholami, A. Khalilnejad, G. Gharehpetian, Electrothermal performance and quantifying and monitoring potential ecosystem impacts of
environmental effects of optimal photovoltaic–thermal system, Energy Convers. geological carbon storage and scalable solar thermoelectric and
Manage 95 (2015) 326–333. photovoltaics
[28] H. Gholami, et al., Evaluation of optimal dual axis concentrated photovoltaic
thermal system with active ventilation using Frog Leap algorithm, Energy Convers.
Manage 105 (2015) 782–790.

12