Campbell Essential Biology, Seventh Edition,
Global Edition and Campbell Essential Biology
with Physiology, Sixth Edition, Global Edition
Chapter 05
The Working Cell
PowerPoint® Lectures created by Edward J. Zalisko, Eric J. Simon, Jean L. Dickey, and
Jane B. Reece
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Biology and Society: Harnessing Cellular
Structures
• You can think of a cell as a machine that
continuously and efficiently performs a variety
of functions, such as
Basic Energy Concepts – movement,
– energy processing, and
ATP and Cellular Work
– production of various products.
Enzymes
Membrane Function • Cells control their chemical environment using
– Energy
– Enzymes
– the plasma membrane
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Some Basic Energy Concepts
• Energy is defined as the capacity to cause change.
• Some forms of energy are used to perform work, such as moving an object
against an opposing force.
• Energy can take many different forms: for instance, light, heat, and electrical
energy
• Types of energy that are particularly important in biological systems, including
kinetic energy (the energy of motion), potential energy (energy due to position
or structure), and chemical energy (the potential energy of chemical bonds).
• Energy is never lost, but it can be converted from one of these forms to
another
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Conservation of Energy
• Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. (ex. Muscle movement from chemical
energy)
• Potential energy is stored energy, energy that an object has because of its
location or structure.
• Life depends on countless similar conversions of energy from one form to
another.
Potential energy
Kinetic energy - Potential
> Potential energy->
energy Kinetic energy
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Kinetic energy
Moving objects can cause a change doing work.
- For example, think of a wrecking ball.
- Even a slow-moving wrecking ball can do a lot of damage to another object, such as an
empty house. However, a wrecking ball that is not moving does not do any work.
- The energy associated with an object’s motion is called kinetic energy.
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Potential energy
Let’s return to our wrecking ball example. The motionless wrecking ball doesn’t have any
kinetic energy. But what would happen if it were lifted two stories up with a crane and
suspended above a car?
- In this case, the wrecking ball isn't moving, but there is, in fact, still energy associated
with it.
- The energy of the suspended wrecking ball reflects its potential to do work.
- If the wrecking ball were released, it would do work by making a pancake of a car. And if
the ball is heavier, the energy associated with it will be greater.
- This type of energy is known as potential energy, and it is the energy associated with an
object because of its position or structure.
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Conservation of Energy
• A physical principle known as conservation of energy explains that it is not possible to
destroy or create energy.
• Energy can only be converted from one form to another.
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Heat
• Heat is a type of kinetic energy contained in the random motion of atoms and
molecules.
• All energy conversions generate some heat.
• Entropy is a measure of disorder, or randomness, in a system.
• Every time energy is converted from one form to another, entropy increases.
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Chemical Energy
• The molecules of food, gasoline, and other fuels have a form of potential energy called
chemical energy, which arises from the arrangement of atoms and can be released by
a chemical reaction.
• -> chemical energy is energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules
• Living cells and automobile engines use the same basic process to make the chemical
energy stored in their fuels available for work.
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Energy Transformations in a Car and a Cell
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Chemical Energy
• Cellular respiration is
– the energy-releasing chemical breakdown of fuel molecules and
– the storage of that energy in a form the cell can use to perform work.
• Humans convert about 34% of our food energy to useful work. The rest of the energy
released by the breakdown of fuel molecules generates body heat.
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Food Calories
• A calorie (cal) is the amount of energy that can raise the temperature of 1 gram (g) of
water by 1°C.
• Food calories are kilocalories, equal to 1,000 calories.
• The energy of calories in food is used to fuel the activities of life.
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A Comparison of the Calories Contained in Some Common
Foods and Burned by Some Common Activities
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ATP and Cellular Work
• Chemical energy released by the breakdown of organic molecules during
cellular respiration is used to generate molecules of ATP.
• ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
– acts like an energy shuttle,
– small, relatively simple molecule
– stores energy obtained from food, and
– releases it later as needed.
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The structure of ATP
- ATP is an RNA nucleotide that bears a
chain of three phosphates.
- At the center of the molecule lies a five-
carbon sugar, ribose, which is attached to
the nitrogenous base adenine and to the
chain of three phosphates.
- The three phosphate groups are labeled
alpha, beta, and gamma.
- ATP is made unstable by the three
adjacent negative charges in its phosphate
tail, which "want" very badly to get further
away from each other.
- The bonds between the phosphate groups
are called phosphoanhydride bonds
referred to as “high-energy” bonds.
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ATP Power
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ATP Hydrolysis
Why are the phosphoanhydride bonds
considered high-energy?
- Energy is released when one of these
bonds is broken in a hydrolysis (water-
mediated breakdown) reaction.
- ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP in the following
reaction:
(ATP+H2O⇋ADP+Pi+energy)
- Like most chemical reactions, the hydrolysis
of ATP to ADP is reversible.
- The reverse reaction (ATP from ADP)
requires energy.
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Phosphate Transfer
• ATP energizes other molecules in cells by transferring phosphate groups to those
molecules.
• This energy
– helps cells change shape,
– enables the transport of ions and other dissolved substances across the
membranes, and
– drives the production of a cell’s large molecules.
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How ATP Drives Cellular Work
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The ATP Cycle
• Cells spend ATP continuously.
• Cellular work spends ATP, which is recycled when ADP and phosphate are combined,
using energy released by cellular respiration.
• Up to 10 million ATPs are consumed and recycled each second in a working muscle
cell.
[Doesn't ADP still have a high-energy bond?]
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The ATP Cycle
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Enzymes
• Metabolism is the total of all chemical reactions in an organism.
• Most metabolic reactions require the assistance of enzymes, proteins that
speed up chemical reactions without being consumed by the reaction.
• All living cells contain thousands of different enzymes, each promoting a
different chemical reaction.
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Activation Energy
• Activation energy is the energy that must be invested to start a reaction, by
this initial split requires an energy “investment” of two ATP molecules per
glucose.
– activating the reactants and
– triggering a chemical reaction.
• Enzymes enable metabolism to occur by reducing the amount of activation
energy
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Enzymes and Activation Energy
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- A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction is called a catalyst.
- The catalysts for biochemical reactions that happen in living organisms are
called enzymes.
- Enzymes are usually proteins. Enzymes perform the critical task of lowering a
reaction's activation energy.
- Enzymes work by binding to reactant and holding them in such a way that the
chemical bond-breaking and bond-forming processes take place.
- To clarify one important point, enzymes don’t change a reaction’s ∆G value. That
is, they don’t change whether a reaction is energy-releasing or energy-absorbing
overall.
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The Process of Science: Can Enzymes Be
Engineered?
• Background: Genetic sequences suggest that many of our genes were formed through
a type of molecular evolution.
• Method: In their attempt to mimic the natural process of evolution, researchers
randomly mutated many copies of a gene that codes for a particular enzyme. The
genes for the enzymes that were most effective were kept, then subjected to several
more rounds of duplication, mutation, and screening.
• Results: After many rounds of directed evolution, the researchers isolated a gene that
codes for an enzyme that is 170 times more efficient at promoting the reaction than the
original enzyme.
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Directed Evolution of an Enzyme
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Structure/Function: Enzyme Activity
• An enzyme is very selective in the reaction it catalyzes.
• To catalyze a reaction, an enzyme will grab on one or more reactant
molecules. These molecules are the enzyme's substrates
• The part of the enzyme where the substrate binds is called the active site
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Structure/Function: Enzyme Activity
• Each enzyme recognizes a substrate, a certain reactant molecule.
– The active site has a shape and chemistry that fits the substrate molecule.
– This interaction is called induced fit, because the entry of the substrate induces
the enzyme to change shape slightly, making the fit between the substrate and
active site.
• After the products are released from the active site, the enzyme can accept another
molecule of its substrate.
• The ability to function repeatedly is a key characteristic of enzymes.
• Many enzymes are named for their substrates, but with an –ase ending.
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*** Common mistakes and misconceptions
•Enzymes are "specific." Each type of enzyme typically only reacts with one, or
a couple, of substrates. Some enzymes are more specific and will only accept
one particular substrate. Other enzymes can act on a range of molecules.
•Enzymes are reusable. Enzymes are not reactants and are not used up
during the reaction. Once an enzyme binds to a substrate and catalyzes the
reaction, the enzyme is released, unchanged, and can be used for another
reaction.
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Environmental effects on enzyme function
1) Temperature.
A higher temperature generally makes for higher rates of reaction. However,
either increasing or decreasing the temperature outside of a tolerable range can
affect chemical bonds in the active site, making them less well-suited to bind
substrates. Very high temperatures may cause an enzyme to denature, losing its
shape and activity.
2) pH.
Active site amino acid residues often have acidic or basic properties that are
important for catalysis. Changes in pH can affect these residues and make it
hard for substrates to bind. Enzymes work best within a certain pH range, and,
as with temperature, extreme pH values (acidic or basic) can make enzymes
denature.
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How an Enzyme Works
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Enzyme Inhibitors
Enzymes can be regulated by other molecules that either increase or reduce their
activity. Molecules that increase the activity of an enzyme are called activators,
while molecules that decrease the activity of an enzyme are called inhibitors.
• Certain molecules inhibit a metabolic reaction by
– binding to an enzyme and
– disrupting its function.
• In each case, an inhibitor disrupts the function of an enzyme by altering its
shape.
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Enzyme Inhibitors
•An inhibitor may bind to an enzyme and
block binding of the substrate, for example,
by attaching to the active site. This is
called competitive inhibition, because
the inhibitor “competes” with the substrate
for the enzyme.
•In noncompetitive inhibition, the
inhibitor doesn't block the substrate from
binding to the active site. Instead, it
attaches at another site and blocks the
enzyme. This inhibition is said to be
"noncompetitive" because the inhibitor and
substrate can both be bound at the same
time.
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Membrane Function
• Cells must also regulate the flow of materials to and from the environment.
• The plasma membrane consists of a double layer of fat (a phospholipid
bilayer) with embedded proteins.
• Figure 5.11 describes the major functions of these membrane proteins.
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Primary Functions of Membrane Proteins
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Passive Transport: Diffusion Across Membranes
• The simplest forms of transport across a membrane are passive.
• Passive transport does not require the cell to expend any energy.
• Diffusion is the movement of molecules to spread out evenly into the available space.
• In the process of diffusion, a substance tends to move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration until its concentration becomes equal
throughout a space.
• In passive transport, a substance diffuses down its concentration gradient from where
the substance is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated.
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Passive Transport: Diffusion Across a Membrane
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Thus, over time, the net movement of molecules will be out of the more concentrated area
and into the less concentrated one, until the concentrations become equal. This process
does not require any energy; in fact, a concentration gradient itself is a form of stored
(potential) energy, and this energy is used up as the concentrations equalize.
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Passive Transport: Diffusion Across
Membranes
• Some molecules, such as carbon dioxide and oxygen, can diffuse across the
plasma membrane directly, but others need help to cross its hydrophobic core
• Substances that do not cross membranes spontaneously, or otherwise cross
very slowly, can be transported via proteins that act as corridors for specific
molecules.
• This assisted transport is called facilitated diffusion, a type of passive
transport.
• Two major classes of facilitated transport proteins are channels and carrier
proteins.
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Channel proteins span the membrane
and make hydrophilic tunnels across it,
allowing their target molecules to pass
through by diffusion. Passage through a
channel protein allows polar and charged
compounds to avoid the hydrophobic core
of the plasma membrane.
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Carrier proteins
Another class of transmembrane proteins involved in facilitated transport consists of
the carrier proteins. Carrier proteins can change their shape to move a target
molecule from one side of the membrane to the other. Often, they will change shape
in response to binding of their target molecule, with the shape change moving the
molecule to the opposite side of the membrane.
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Osmosis and Water Balance
• The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane is osmosis.
• A solute is a substance that is dissolved in a liquid solvent, such as the salt in salt
water, and the resulting mixture is called a solution.
Osmosis is a passive
transport process during
which water moves from
areas where solutes are less
concentrated to areas where
they are more concentrated.
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Osmosis
• Compared to another solution,
– a hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of solute,
– a hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solute, and
– an isotonic solution has an equal concentration of solute.
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Water Balance in Animal Cells
• The survival of a cell depends on its ability to balance water uptake and loss.
• For an animal to survive a hypotonic or hypertonic environment, the animal
must have a way to balance the uptake and loss of water.
• The control of water balance is called osmoregulation.
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Osmotic Environments
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Water Balance in Plant Cells
• Plant cells have rigid cell walls.
• Plant cells are healthiest in a hypotonic environment with a net inflow of water,
which expands their cell walls without bursting.
• The plasma membrane can only expand to the limit of the rigid cell wall, so the cell
won't burst, or lyse. In fact, the cytoplasm in plants is generally a bit hypertonic to
the cellular environment, and water will enter a cell until its internal pressure—
turgor pressure—prevents further influx.
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Plant turgor
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Active Transport: The Pumping of
Molecules Across Membranes
• Active transport requires that a cell expend energy to move molecules across a
membrane.
– Cellular energy (usually provided by ATP) is used to drive a transport protein that
pumps a solute against the concentration gradient.
– Active transport allows cells to maintain internal concentrations of small solutes
that differ from environmental concentration.
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Exocytosis and Endocytosis: Traffic of
Large Molecules
• Cells need bulk transport mechanisms, in which large particles (or large quantities of
smaller particles) are moved across the cell membrane.
• Exocytosis (exo = external, cytosis = transport mechanism) is the movement of
materials out of the cytoplasm of a cell via membranous vesicles or vacuoles that fuse
with the plasma membrane.
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Endocytosis
• In endocytosis (endo = internal, cytosis = transport mechanism), a cell takes
material in via vesicles that bud inward.
First, the plasma membrane of the cell invaginates (folds inward), forming a pocket around
the target particle or particles. The pocket then pinches off with the help of specialized
proteins, leaving the particle trapped in a newly created vesicle or vacuole inside the cell.
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Endocytosis can be further subdivided into the following categories:
phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis (literally, “cell eating”) is a
form of endocytosis in which large particles,
such as cells or cellular debris, are
transported into the cell. We’ve already
seen one example of phagocytosis,
because this is the type of endocytosis
used by the macrophage opener to engulf a
pathogen.
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Pinocytosis
Pinocytosis (literally, “cell drinking”)
is a form of endocytosis in which a
cell takes in small amounts of
extracellular fluid. Pinocytosed
material is held in small vesicles,
much smaller than the large food
vacuole produced by phagocytosis.
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Receptor-mediated
endocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a
form of endocytosis in which receptor
proteins on the cell surface are used to
capture a specific target molecule. When
the receptors bind to their specific target
molecule, endocytosis is triggered,
and the receptors and their attached
molecules are taken into the cell in a
vesicle.
The coat proteins participate in this
process by giving the vesicle its rounded
shape and helping it bud off from the
membrane.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis allows
cells to take up large amounts of molecules
that are relatively rare.
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Copyright
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