Prep III

The City School

Handout Number: Science 1.3.1,2,3
Topic: Periodic Table
Name: ___________________ Class: __________
Periodic trends

Figure 1 A section of the periodic table

Columns in the periodic table – groups

• The vertical columns in the periodic table are called groups.
• The elements in any one vertical column are in the same group.
• The groups are numbered from left to right.
• Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties, and there is usually a pattern in their
physical properties too.
• The number of electrons in the outer shell of all the elements in a group is the same as the group
number.
Examples
• All the Group 1 elements – lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs) and
francium (Fr) – have one electron in the outer shell.
• The Group 7 elements – fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At) – have
seven electrons in the outer shell.
• Group 0 elements – helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn) –
have full outer shells. (Group 0 is sometimes called Group 8).
Rows in the periodic table – periods
• Elements in the same horizontal row are in the same period. The periods are numbered from top to
bottom.
• The period number is the same as the number of occupied electron shells.
• Elements grouped together going horizontally across are called periods. It is often harder to see a
pattern going across a period.
• Sometimes the patterns in the periodic table are called periodic trends. A trend is another word for
a pattern.
Electronic structures
An electronic structure is the way in which electrons are arranged in an atom.
 Prep III

Electrons in shells
Electrons in atoms occupy energy levels, also called electron shells, outside the nucleus. Different shells can
hold different maximum numbers of electrons. The electrons in an atom occupy the lowest available energy
level first. This is the shell nearest the nucleus. When this shell is full the electrons begin to occupy the next
energy level.
Below is a table showing the maximum number of electrons an element can have for each of its energy level
shells. The information shown is for elements with atomic numbers 1 to 20:

The electronic structure of an atom is a description of how the electrons are arranged. It can
be shown as numbers or as a diagram.
Take lithium for example. The diagram shows each shell as a circle around the nucleus, with
each electron represented by a dot. The electronic structure for lithium is written as 2.1
(showing that lithium atoms have three electrons, two in the first shell and one in the second Figure 2 electronic
shell) structure of lithium
Electronic structures and the periodic table
The electronic structure of an element is linked to its position on the periodic table.

The electronic structure of sodium (2,8,1)

shows that sodium, Na:
• is in period 3
• is in group 1
• has an atomic number of (2 + 8 + 1) = 11

Making predictions about reactivity

The specific arrangement of Group 1 elements on the periodic table allows us to make predictions about their
reactivity. For example:
• Lithium (Li) reacts quickly with water. It floats and produces bubbles. It moves slowly around the surface of
the water.
• Sodium (Na) is the next element and is more reactive than lithium. When it reacts with water it also floats,
but it moves faster around the surface. It produces bubbles more quickly than lithium.
Using the periodic trend of group 1 elements, can you predict how a small piece of potassium (K) will react
when it is added to water?
When potassium (K) is added to water, the metal floats and fizzes violently. It melts and moves around very
quickly on the surface of the water. The metal catches on fire, and some sparks are produced.
Therefore, we can conclude that:
The reactivity of Group 1 elements increases as you go down the group.
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Group 7 elements are non-metals. They do not conduct electricity and are poor conductors of heat. The table
shows some properties of Group 7 elements. These exist as molecules. A strong force holds the atom of the
molecule together. The forces between a molecule and its neighbours are weak. It is easy to separate the
molecules of chlorine in the liquid state to form a gas. The table shows a trend in melting and boiling points.
They increase from top to bottom of the group. This is because the atoms (and molecules) of the elements get
bigger.

The reactions are similar. This is because all the Group 7 elements have seven electrons in the outer most
shell. For the Group 7 elements, reactions get less vigorous going down the group. This is different from
Groups 1 and 2, in which reactions get more vigorous going down the group.
Physical properties of the noble gases
Group 0 contains non-metal elements placed in the vertical column on the far right of the periodic table. The
elements in group 0 are called the noble gases. They exist as single atoms.
Boiling points
The noble gases all have low boiling points:
• helium, at the top of group 0, has the lowest boiling point of any element
• boiling point increases going down the group
This is because, going down group 0:
• the atoms become larger
• the intermolecular forces between the atoms become stronger
• more energy is needed to overcome these forces
Chemical properties of the noble gases
Compared to other elements, the noble gases are inert - they are extremely unreactive.
Explaining the inertness of noble gases
When elements react, their atoms complete their outer shells by losing, gaining, or sharing electrons. The
atoms of noble gases already have complete outer shells, so they have no tendency to lose, gain, or share
electrons. This is why the noble gases are inert and do not take part in chemical reactions.
The table summarises the electronic configurations of elements in groups 1, 7 and 0. You should see that:
• atoms of group 1 and 7 elements have incomplete outer shells (so they are reactive)
• atoms of group 0 elements have complete outer shells (so they are unreactive)
Properties and uses of noble gases
The main properties of the noble gases include:
• they have low densities
• they are inert, so they are not flammable
Many uses of the noble gases are linked to one or more of these properties.
Helium is used as a lifting gas in party balloons and airships.
 Prep III

The City School

Handout Number: Science 1.7.1,2
Topic: Electricity
Name: ______________________________________________________________ Sec: ___________

Learning Objective(s):
1.7.1 Use diagrams and conventional symbols to represent, make, and compare circuits that include cells, switches, resistors (fixed
and variable), ammeters, voltmeters, lamps, and buzzers.
1.7.2 Know how to measure current and voltage in series and parallel circuits, and describe the effect of adding cells and lamps.
Current
Current is a measure of how much electric charge flows through a circuit. The more charge that flows, the
bigger the current.
Current is measured in amperes. The symbol for ampere is A. For example, 20 A is a bigger current than 5 A.
The word ‘ampere’ is often abbreviated to ‘amp’, so people talk about how many amps flow.
Measuring current
A device called an ammeter is used to measure current. Some types of ammeters have a pointer on a dial, but
most have a digital display. To measure the current flowing through a component in a circuit, you must connect
the ammeter in series with it.

A circuit with an ammeter connected in two different places, both in series

with the cell and lamp
When two components are connected in series, you can follow the path
through both components without lifting your finger or going back over
the path you have already taken.
Series circuits
In a television series, you get several episodes, one after the other. A series
circuit is similar. You get several components one after the other.
If you follow the circuit diagram from one side of the cell to the other, you
should pass through all the different components, one after the other, without
any branches.
In a series circuit, if a lamp breaks or a component is disconnected, the circuit is broken and all the
components stop working. In a series circuit, if one lamp is
Figure 1 Two lamps in series
removed or broken, the other goes out
Series circuits are useful if you want a warning that one of the components in the circuit has failed. They also
use less wiring than parallel circuits.
Current in series circuits
The current is the same everywhere in a series circuit. It does not matter where you put the ammeter; it will
give you the same reading.
The current in a series circuit depends upon the number of cells. If you make the cells face in the same
direction, the more cells you add, the greater the current.
Current is not used up

1
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If you put more lamps into a series circuit, the lamps will be dimmer than
before because less current will flow through them.
You might think that the current gets less as it flows through one component
after another, but it is not like this. The current is not used up by the
components in a circuit. This means that the current is the same everywhere in
a series circuit, even if it has lots of lamps or other components.
Parallel circuits
In a parallel circuit, different components are connected on different branches
of the wire. If you follow the circuit diagram from one side of the cell to the Figure 2 All three ammeters read 0.5 A
other, you can only pass through all the different components if you follow all in this series circuit

the branches.
Parallel circuits are useful if you want everything to work, even if one
component has failed. This is why our homes are wired up with parallel
circuits.
Current is shared
When two components are connected in parallel, the
current is shared between the components. The
current is shared when it reaches the branches, then
adds again where the branches meet.
Figure 3 The current in this series circuit
increases as more cells are added.

In the diagram, 6 A flows through the cell. The circuit has three branches, each with an identical lamp, so 2 A
flows through each one.
If the lamps were not identical, their resistances would be different and the current flowing through each
lamp would not be the same. The greater the resistance of a lamp, the smaller the current that flows
through it. The current would still be shared between them, and it would still add where the branches
meet.

2
 Prep III

The City School

Handout Number: Science 1.9.1,2
Topic: Sound and Energy
Name: ___________________ Class: __________
Types of waves
Waves transfer energy from one place to another. Light from the Sun travels through space and through the atmosphere,
transferring energy to the Earth and other planets.
Sound travels from a loudspeaker and transfers energy to the objects that absorb it for example, your ears.
Some waves move through a substance because the particles vibrate at right angles to the direction that the
wave is moving in, these types of waves are called transverse waves.
Other waves travel because the particles move backwards and forwards a short distance in the same direction
as the wave is moving in. These types of waves are called longitudinal waves.
Transverse waves
The following types of waves are transverse waves:
• ocean waves
• light waves
• microwaves
• radio waves
• ultraviolet radiation
Transverse waves can also be made by shaking a rope up and down or from side to side, and look like this:

1. A hand holds a length of rope 2. The hand is flicked down, and 3. The hand is jerked up, and a
taut an inverted U-shape has second U-shape has appeared in
appeared in the rope the rope
In the diagram above, the rope moves up and down, but the energy is transferred along the rope from left to
right, at 90° to the oscillation.
In a transverse wave, the oscillation (vibration) is at right angles to the direction of energy transfer.
• The particles move up and down as the wave moves from left to right.
• However, none of the particles are transported along a transverse wave.
Longitudinal waves
Sound waves, pressure waves, and primary waves (a type of seismic wave produced by earthquakes) are
longitudinal waves. Longitudinal waves can also be made by pushing a slinky forward and backward, and they
look like this:
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The hand on the coiled metal The highlighted vibration is The energy is transferred along the
spring creates the movement parallel to the direction of energy coiled metal spring parallel to the
of the vibration transfer by hand to the coiled vibration
metal spring
In a longitudinal wave, the vibration is parallel to the direction of energy transfer.
In the diagram above, each coil of the slinky moves backwards and forwards on either side of its rest position.
However, none of the coils are moved along the length of the slinky. They just move backwards and forwards
parallel to the direction in which the energy flows. The energy is transferred along the slinky, parallel to the
oscillation.
Describing transverse waves
Some important terms are used to describe waves:
• Peak – the highest point of a transverse wave is called
a peak, like the highest point of a mountain.
• Trough – the lowest point of a transverse wave is called
a trough because it makes the shape of a trough that an
animal might eat from.
• Amplitude – the distance from a peak or a trough to
the rest position is called the amplitude of the wave. A
wave with tall peaks has a large amplitude.
• Wavelength – The distance from one peak to the next
peak is called the wavelength. The wavelength of a wave could also be measured from one trough to the next
trough, or from any point on the wave to the same point on the next cycle of the wave.

Figure 2 This displacement-distance graph is how you would measure a wavelength of a wave
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• Frequency – the number of

complete vibrations in one second.
This is the same as the number of
complete waves passing a point each
second. Frequency is measured in
hertz (Hz). A frequency of 50 Hz
means there are 50 vibrations every
second, or that 50 waves pass by
every second.
• Time period – the time taken for
one complete cycle of the wave. It is
also the time taken for one
Figure 3 A displacement-time graph is a way to measure the time period of a wave. This wave has a
complete wave to pass by, for time period of 0.1 seconds.
example, the time from one peak to
pass until the next or from one trough to pass by until the next.
Describing longitudinal waves
The same terms can be used to describe longitudinal waves,
but with a few important differences:
• Compression – a region of high pressure, where the particles
are closer together than normal.
• Rarefaction – a region of low pressure, where the particles
are further apart than normal.
• Amplitude – the maximum distance a particle moves from its
rest position.
• Wavelength – The distance from the centre of one compression to the centre of the next compression is
called the wavelength. The wavelength of a longitudinal wave could also be measured from the centre of a
rarefaction to the centre of the next rarefaction.
• Frequency – the number of vibrations in one second. This is the same as the number of complete waves
passing a point each second. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). A frequency of 50 Hz means there are 50
vibrations every second, or that 50 waves pass by every second.
• Time period – the time taken for one complete cycle of the wave. It is also the time taken for one complete
wave to pass by, for example, the time from one compression to pass until the next.
Comparing wave diagrams
Displacement-distance graphs
Displacement-distance graphs are diagrams that can be used to compare the amplitude and wavelength of
different waves. Displacement-distance graphs can be used to measure and compare the wavelength of a
wave in units. The distance from peak to peak, or trough to trough, is the wavelength.
 Prep III

Figure 4 Wave B, shown in green, has a smaller amplitude and a shorter wavelength than wave A, shown in red
Displacement-time graphs
Displacement-time graph demonstrates how the displacement of one point on the wave varies over time. A
displacement-time graph can be used to compare the number of waves in a particular time period, which in
turn can be used to compare the frequency of different waves.

Figure 5 Wave B, shown in green, has a shorter time period than wave A, shown in red. This means it also has a higher frequency.
What is the relationship between sound frequency, pitch, and volume?
The frequency of a sound wave is related to the pitch of the sound, but not the volume. The amplitude determines the
volume of a sound. A sound wave with a higher frequency is perceived as having a higher pitch. A high frequency happens
when a wave is traveling faster with a short wavelength.
How is the amplitude of sound measured?
The amplitude of a sound is measured using the SI unit: decibels (dB). The decibel number represents the volume or
loudness of the sound. On a graph, amplitude is the height of the wave measured from the rest position of the wave to
the top of the wave.
How does amplitude affect sound?
The amplitude of a sound affects the way the loudness or volume of a
sound is perceived. A sound with a taller amplitude is perceived as a
louder sound. Sound waves with a higher amplitude require more energy
to create.
What are the 3 properties of sound waves?
The 3 main properties of sound waves are amplitude, wavelength, and
frequency. The amplitude, wavelength, and frequency of a sound wave
determine how the sound is perceived and are affected by the amount
of energy used to create the sound. The amplitude, or height of the
sound wave determines its loudness. The wavelength is the distance between two waves and affects the wave's
frequency. Frequency determines the pitch of the sound. A higher frequency means a higher pitched sound.
 Prep III

The City School

Handout Number: Science 1.10.3
Topic: Sound and Energy
Name: ___________________ Class: __________
Introduction to Wave Interference
We have seen that a sound wave is composed of particles
under pressure when they are squashed together, and when they
are pulled apart, the pressure is reduced. A region of particles
under high pressure is called a compression, and a region of
particles under lower pressure is called a rarefaction.

The air has many sound waves passing through it. When two
sound waves of the same frequency meet and their compressions
and rarefactions occur at the same place, they are said to interfere
in a constructive way and produce a wave of greater amplitude, as Figure 1.1 Sound waves of the same
Figure 1.1 shows. frequency interfere in a constructive way
When two sound waves of the same frequency meet and their when their compressions and rarefactions
compressions and rarefactions occur at different places, they are occur at the same place.
said to interfere in a destructive way and produce a wave with a
smaller amplitude. (Figure 1.2)

If two waves of the same frequency meet so that the

compressions of one occur in the same place as the rarefactions
of the other, they cancel each other out, as Figure 1.3 shows, and
no sound is heard at that place. The places produced by this
totally destructive wave are called dead spots.
If the two waves of different frequencies meet, they interfere
both constructively (building a sound wave of greater amplitude)
and also destructively (building a wave of lesser amplitude). As
these two new waves move along with their different amplitudes, Figure 1.2 Sound waves of the same frequency
they produce sounds of different degrees of loudness, and we interfere in a destructive way when their
hear a sound phenomenon known as beats. compressions and rarefactions occur at different
places.
Modelling the sound waves
Sound waves cannot be seen, but scientists consider
Their movement is similar to waves moving across the
surface of water. If you have ever thrown a pebble into a
puddle, you will have seen waves move out across the water
surface from where the pebble hit. In a similar way
The sound produced by a sound source spreads out all
around it like the waves in a puddle.

Figure 1.3 Sound waves of the same frequency can

cancel each other out when the compression of one
occurs in exactly the same place as the rarefaction of
the other.
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Scientists use a ripple tank to model and study

sound waves. As shown in the figure below.

It is made up of a transparent tray of water to

represent the puddle and a paddle powered by a
motor to represent an object generating waves. When
this is switched on, ripples move across the water
surface and a light shining from above casts shadows
on a screen below.
When one source of movement is used, the wave
pattern shown in Figure 13.18 is produced in a ripple
tank. The dark areas show the positions of the crests
of the waves, and the light areas show the positions of the troughs.
When two movements are used in
ripple tanks, the following wave pattern
is produced. The waves from the two
sources have crossed each other, and
interference has occurred. Where the
dark regions are found are extra high
crests, and where light regions are found
are extra low troughs. Shown in Figure
13.19
There are many practical examples
of sound wave interference in everyday
life:
Musical instruments: When two
instruments play the same note in
harmony, constructive interference
occurs, producing a richer and louder
sound. If they are slightly out of tune,
destructive interference may occur,
resulting in a "beating" sound or
dissonance.
Noise-canceling technology: Noise-
canceling headphones are designed to
create sound waves that are the exact
opposite of external noise. By producing
sound waves that are out of phase with
the unwanted noise, the headphones can cancel out the
noise, making it much quieter or even silent for the user.
Echo and reverberation: In a large room, sound waves can
bounce off walls and interact with each other. If the waves reinforce
each other, you may hear a louder echo. If they cancel each other
out, the sound may be dampened.
 Prep III

The City School

Handout Number: Science 1.11.4
Topic: Sound & Energy
Name: Sec:

Learning Objective(s):
1.11.4: Know that energy is conserved, meaning it cannot be created or destroyed.

Energy is the capacity to do work. While this definition tells us what energy can do, it doesn’t fully explain what energy is.
Energy is a complex concept—it comes in many forms, has various sources, and follows scientific laws that govern how it
behaves. We often observe energy through its effects, like turning on a light or running up stairs, but it’s harder to imagine
energy in something static, like an apple on a desk. Yet even the apple has stored energy—potential energy due to its position
and chemical energy in its structure. If it falls, that potential energy becomes kinetic energy; if eaten, it releases chemical
energy.

Energy can change form or move between objects, but it is never created or destroyed. This is the law of conservation of
energy. For example, electrical energy in a lightbulb becomes light and heat. A moving car transfers kinetic energy to its
brakes, which release heat. Even when energy spreads out or becomes less useful, the total amount remains constant.
Energy Transformations and Transfers
Although energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can change forms. For example, when you turn on a light bulb, electrical
energy is converted into light energy and heat energy. Similarly, when you listen to music, electrical energy is transformed
into sound energy through the speaker.

In many processes, energy can also be transferred

from one object to another. For instance, when a
moving car comes to a stop, its kinetic energy is
transferred to the brakes, which then release heat
energy into the surroundings.
Even though energy changes form or moves
between objects, the total amount of energy
remains the same throughout these processes. This
is the key idea behind energy conservation.
Richard Feynman Model
To help explain this, physicist Richard Feynman
created a model using wooden blocks. In his story,
a child has 28 indestructible blocks. No matter
what happens—whether blocks are hidden under a
rug, inside a box, or mixed in dirty bathwater—the
total number of blocks remains 28. The child’s
mother keeps track of them by creating an
equation that accounts for all the places the blocks might be. This mirrors how scientists track energy: even when it’s
hidden in heat, motion, or chemical bonds, it’s still there. The equation may become more complex, but the total energy
remains unchanged.
This analogy helps learners understand that energy doesn’t disappear—it transforms or transfers. Just like the blocks,
energy might be hard to see, but it can be measured and accounted for. Acting out this model with physical blocks can help
students visualize energy conservation and understand how scientists use models to explain abstract ideas.
Examples in everyday life reinforce this principle.
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Examples of Energy Conservation in Everyday Life

1. A Roller Coaster: When a roller coaster climbs a hill, its kinetic energy (energy of motion) is transformed into potential
energy (stored energy) at the top of the hill. As the coaster descends, this potential energy is converted back into
kinetic energy. Throughout the ride, the total energy remains the same, though it continuously changes between
kinetic and potential forms.

2. A Pendulum: A pendulum swinging back and forth demonstrates energy conservation. At the highest point of its
swing, the pendulum has maximum potential energy and minimal kinetic energy. As it falls, its potential energy
decreases and its kinetic energy increases. At the lowest point, the pendulum has maximum kinetic energy. Despite
these changes, the total energy of the system remains constant.

3. Bouncing a Ball: When you drop a ball, its potential energy (due to its height) converts to kinetic energy as it falls.
When the ball hits the ground, some of that energy is transferred to the ground, and some bounce back as kinetic
energy, pushing the ball upward. Over time, the ball stops bouncing as its energy is gradually lost to the surroundings
as heat and sound, but the total energy is still conserved within the system.

4. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions: in exothermic reactions, energy is released as heat and sometimes as light
and sound as well into the surroundings. In endothermic reactions, energy is taken from the substances in the
surrounding area and stored in the product. No energy is destroyed or created. It simply moves from one to
another form and is conserved.

Understanding conservation of energy helps explain why some processes are more efficient than others. Energy may be
transformed into less useful forms, but it’s always conserved. Whether in motion, heat, sound, or chemical bonds, energy
remains constant in a closed system
 Prep III

The City School

Handout Number: Science 1.11.5,6,7
Topic: Sound and Energy
Name: __________________ Class: __________

Learning Objective(s):
1.11.5 Describe the difference between heat and temperature.
1.11.6 Know that thermal energy will always transfer from hotter regions or objects to colder ones, and this is known as heat
dissipation
1.12.7 Describe thermal transfer by the processes of conduction, convection and radiation.

Temperature and heat

Temperature and heat are not the same.
The temperature of an object is to do with how hot or cold it is. It is measured indegrees Celsius, °C, with a
thermometer.
Thermal energy is to do with the movement of the particles inside matter. Heating matter makes the
particles vibrate faster or move faster. The hotter the substance, the more its molecules vibrate or move, so
the more they kinetic energy they have. Thermal energy comes from the total kinetic energy of all the
particles. It is measured in joules, J. A joulemeter is a device that measures heat energy. When thermal
energy flows, we refer to it as heat
energy. Temperature and heat are
not the same thing because:
• Temperature is a measure of
how hot an object is.
• Heat is to do with the total
kinetic energy of the particles of
an object.
• Temperature is measured in °C.
• Heat is a form of energy and is
measured in J.
A bowl of soup might have a
temperature of 75°C. The sea at
Portrush has a summer temperature
of 17°C.
The soup is hotter than the sea
water because its temperature is
higher. The sea has more thermal energy because the sea contains many more particles than the soup.
Heat energy can flow by conduction, convection or radiation. It always flows from a region of high
temperature to a region of low temperature i.e. from hot to cold.
 Prep III

Thermal equilibrium
If there is a difference in temperature between two objects, energy transfers by heating from the hotter
object to the cooler one.
The greater difference in temperature, the faster the energy is transferred.
Example 1 - eating an ice lolly on a hot day
Energy is transferred by heating from the hot surroundings to the cold lolly. This causes the lolly to warm
up.
Example 2 - drinking a hot coffee on a cold day
Energy is transferred by heating from the hot coffee to the cold surroundings. This causes the coffee to cool
down.
When the objects reach the same temperature as the surrounding environment, the energy transfer will
stop.
When the objects are at the same temperature, they are in thermal equilibrium.

Conduction
Conduction is where energy is transferred by the vibrating particles in a substance. The energy is transferred
from a hotter region to a cooler region.
Conduction happens fastest in solids because the particles are close together.
Materials which transfer energy easily from a hot area to a cooler area by conduction are called conductors.
Metals are very good conductors.
Have a look through this slideshow to understand more about metals as conductors.

Materials which do not transfer energy easily from a hotter area to a cooler area are called insulators. Air and
plastics are good insulators.
The best insulator is a vacuum. Conduction cannot occur if there are no particles.
 Prep III

Convection
A fluid is a substance that can flow. Both liquids and gases are fluids.
The particles in a fluid can move around from one place to another.
Look through the slideshow to understand more about the stages of convection.
In convection, heat energy is carried away by the particles of the material that
change position. When a metal pan of water is put on stove, the water closest to the
hot surface at the bottom of the pan receives heat from the metal first. The
molecules of water next to the metal move faster and spread further apart as their kinetic energy increases.
This makes the water at the bottom of the pan less dense than the water above it and the warm water rises.
Cooler water from above moves in to take the place of the rising warmer water. The cool water is also
warmed and rises. It is replaced by yet more cool water and convection currents are set up, as shown in
figure 12.10.
Radiation
All objects transfer energy to their surroundings by infrared radiation. The
hotter the object, the more infrared radiation it emits.
Infrared radiation is a type of electromagnetic wave. Unlike conduction and
convection, there are no particles involved. This means that energy can be
transferred by radiation when there are no
particles, like the vacuum of space.
Radiation is why we feel the warmth of the Sun. Thermal imaging cameras
detect the amount of infrared radiation emitted by an object. The camera
produces an image like this one of the hands. The blue and purple areas
represent cooler areas. These emit less infrared radiation. The yellow and
orange areas represent hotter areas. These emit lots of infrared radiation.
Dark matt surfaces are better at absorbing heat energy than light shiny surfaces. Dark matt surfaces are
better at radiating heat energy than light shiny surfaces.
 Prep III

The vacuum flask

A vacuum flask can keep hot liquids hot and cold
liquids cold. To keep water hot the flask must stop
heat loss by conduction, convection and radiation.
A vacuum flask has the following features:
• A double walled glass bottle.

• A vacuum between the glass walls.

• Both glass walls facing the vacuum are silvered.

• A plastic stopper filled with cork or foam.

• Cork or sponge packaging and a plastic case to protect

the glass bottle.

 The City School
Handout Number: Science 1.12.8
Topic: Sound & Energy
Name: Sec:

Learning Objective(s):
1.12.8 Explain cooling by evaporation.

Science in Context:
Uses of cooling by evaporation.
Cooling systems are used in fridges around the world. They bring about cooling by evaporation. Figure of fridge show how
they work.