Index

INDEX

0 - INTRODUÇÃO ............................................................................................................0.1
1 - DIRECTION GEOMETRY.....................................................................................1.1
1.2 - DISTANCE BETWEEN AXLES AND TRACK.....................................................................................1.3

1.3 - ANGLE OF INCLINATION OF THE DIRECTION AXIS AND DRAG RADIUS...1.4

1.4 - CASTER ANGLE...............................................................................1.14

1.5- SOIL ANGLE OR CAMBER...................................................................................1.23

1.6 - COMBINED OR INCLUDED ANGLE.................................................1.30

1.7 - CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE....................................................1.31

1.8 - REAR THRUST ANGLE...............................................................................1.40

2 - MEASUREMENT AND REGULATION OF CHARACTERISTIC ANGLES.........................2.1

2.1 - VEHICLE PREPARATION

2.2 - INSTALLATION OF MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT ON WHEELS.......................2.5

2.3 - VERIFICATION AND REGULATION OF CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE.......................2.6

2.4 - CHECK AND REGULATION OF SLOPE ANGLE..............................................2.11

2.5 - VERIFICATION AND REGULATION OF THE INCLINATION ANGLE OF THE HEEL

AXLE MANGA................................................................................................................................2.17

2.6 - VERIFICATION AND REGULATION OF THE ADVANCE ANGLE..........................................2.17

3 - UNDERSTEERING AND OVERSTEERING..........................................................................3.1

4 - TURNING RADIUS....................................................................................................4.1
5 - REAR WHEEL ALIGNMENT ................................................................5.1
5.1 - SELF-DIRECTING AXIS SYSTEMS......................................................................5.1

5.1 - FOUR-WHEEL STEERING SYSTEMS..........................................................5.3

6 - INFLUENCE OF SUSPENSION ON STEERING.......................................................6.1

Direction Geometry
 Introduction

0 - INTRODUCTION

The geometry of the car's steering system greatly influences its behavior.
and your safety.

This module, dedicated to the measurement and regulation of steering geometry, aims to call for
attention to future automotive repair technicians for the fundamental care and procedures
what should be taken when aligning the direction.

In addition to these precautions, the influences of the characteristic angles of direction and of
other characteristics of the car, such as the type of suspension or traction, in behavior
of the vehicle.

The study of this module does not exempt the consultation of the specific technical manuals for each vehicle or
the operation manuals of the wheel alignment machines.

Direction Geometry 0.1

 Direction Geometry

1 - DIRECTION GEOMETRY

In this first chapter, we will address the angles and characteristic measurements of geometry.
from the steering and its influences on the behavior of the vehicle.

1.1 - ACKERMAN PRINCIPLE - JEANTAUD DIAGRAM

There is a need to eliminate, or reduce to a minimum, the slipping of the wheels over
the floor, which is produced when the trajectory followed by them does not coincide with what is
imposed by the steering system.

To ensure this condition, it is necessary for all four wheels of the vehicle to orient themselves in
curve in such a way as to describe circles of radii with the same center.

a. Turning angle of the

internal wheel
b. Turning angle of the
outer wheel
c. Circles described by
each wheel
d. Curve center

Fig. 1.1 - Ackerman Principle

Direction Geometry 1.1

Geometry of Direction

On a curve, the outer guiding wheel has to follow a wider trajectory. Therefore,
your opening angle must be greater.

In order for both guiding wheels to follow the desired trajectory, all four wheels must have
a direction such that its rays meet at a single point, called instantaneous center of
rotation, located in the extension of the axis of the rear wheels.

The difference in the turning angle, or divergence in a curve, between the two guiding wheels.
It is obtained thanks to the arrangement of the steering levers located in the axle sleeves.

To determine the geometry of the trapezoid

of direction that allows angles of
different turns can be used a
graphic calculation referred to as diagram
of Jeantaud.

This method allows determining the

inclination of the levers located in the
axis mangas.

Lines passing through the pin axes,

axes of the connecting bar and through the center of

rear axle. When the connecting bar

if it is in front of the axis, it will be greater than this.

V) Through the front wheels

E) Distance between axles

Fig. 1.2 – Jeantaud Diagram

1.2 Direction Geometry

 Direction Geometry

a) Steering box
b) Control lever -
pendular
c) Auxiliary articulation
d) Link bar
e) Angles of the diagram of
Jeantaud Fig. 1.3

To ensure a different angle from

turning in the steering wheels is used a
steering system with spindle sleeve.
The axis mangas are articulated in
wheel axle fittings to allow
the turning and
Axle sleeve
suspension oscillation. Cavilhão

Fig. 1.4

1.2 - DISTANCE BETWEEN AXES AND TRACK

The wheelbase is understood as the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels.

Direction Geometry 1.3

Geometry of Direction

The track, or distance between wheels, is

distance between the wheels of the same axle

(right and left), being the points

reference the two centers of the tires
on their supporting surfaces.

As a general rule, the larger it is

distance between axles and wheel track
the stability of the vehicle will be greater,
especially in curve.

E. Wheelbase
V. Through the wheels

Fig. 1.5

1.3 - ANGLE OF INCLINATION OF THE DIRECTION AXIS AND RADIUS

OF DRAGGING

The axis of direction is referred to as the axis

that allows to modify the orientation of
front wheels of a vehicle, in order to
enable your driving.

Fig. 1.6

1.4 Direction Geometry

 Geometry of Direction

In certain vehicles, the steering axle

it is located in the central plan
from the wheel. But normally it is not possible
place the steering axis in that location,
given that, there, it is necessary to accommodate the organs

of braking. Therefore the steering axis

place yourself next to the wheel.

Fig. 1.7 – Steering axis

centered with the wheel
Lateral inclination of the steering axis
King Pin

It is called lateral tilt of the axis

of direction, to the angle formed by the axis
steering (wheel turning axis) with
a vertical-longitudinal plane to the vehicle.
Inclination of the steering axis inward
viewed from the front or from the back.

The lateral inclination of the steering axis is

given in degrees and its submultiples.
Fig. 1.8 - Angle of inclination
lateral of the steering axis

Drag radius

The distance existing at ground level between

two longitudinal plans that contain,
respectively, the extension of the axis
of direction and the center of friction of the wheel

about the soil, it is called the radius of

wheel dragging.

Fig. 1.9 – Drag radius

Direction Geometry 1.5

Direction Geometry

The center of friction is the central point of

contact surface between the tire and the
alone, where it can be considered that it is
concentrated all the friction effort
between the tire and the pavement.

Fig. 1.10 - Center of friction

It is desirable for the drag coefficients to be small. Large drag coefficients

difficulty in turning the wheels, especially with the vehicle stopped, and it is transmitted to the steering wheel

many of the vibrations resulting from the shocks of the wheels with the pavement, causing a
abnormal wear on the tires and possibly, in certain cases, causing the steering wheel to slip from the hands
of the conductor.

As can be seen in Fig. 1.11, the

lateral inclination of the steering axis
allows the connections of the sleeve
The axis should be made next to the wheel.
and, at the same time, makes it possible
the acquisition of drag rays
small.

Fig. 1.1

The wheel's drag radius is called

by positive drag radius, when
is located on the inside of the plane
fashion center (Fig. 1.12).

Fig.1.12

1.6 Direction Geometry

 Direction Geometry

The drag radius of the wheel,

it is referred to as drag radius
negative, when you locate on the part
from outside the central plane of the wheel (Fig.

1.13).

When the extension of the axis of

the direction goes through the center of friction of Fig.1.13
wheel, it is said that the wheel has a radius of

null dragging (Fig. 1.14).

Fig.1.14

Drag moment

It is called the moment of

drag to the resultant product
from the forces of friction between the wheel and the ground,

by the wheel's drag radius.

Ma = Fa x Ra

(Ma) Dragging Moment

Friction Force

(Ra) Dragging Radius

Fig. 1.15 - View of the support surface of

tire with center location of
friction and drag radius

Direction Geometry 1.7

Direction Geometry

The dragging moment creates tendencies on the wheel to turn outward (diverge) or to turn inward.
inward (converge), according to the circumstances that arise.

In a vehicle with rear-wheel drive:

a) When the caster angle is positive, the wheels tend to turn outward, or
be, diverge
b) When the caster angle is negative, the wheels tend to turn inward,
that is, to converge.
Fig. 1.16

If we consider a front-wheel drive vehicle, we will have the opposite situation:

a) When the caster angle is positive, the wheels have a tendency to turn inward.
they converge.
b) When the scrub radius is negative, the wheels tend to turn outward or
diverge
Fig. 1.17

1.8 Direction Geometry

 Geometry of Direction

The front wheels of a vehicle

are linked to each other by the bar
of direction and this leads to them
behave as a set.
Thus, if both wheels are
subject to drag rays and
the frictional forces are equal, that is,
equal drag moments,
the trends for turning to
inside (they will converge) or outside
(they diverge), they cancel each other out.
From this it will result that the vehicle does not

presents a tendency to deviate

Fig. 1.18
of a straight trajectory (Fig.
1.18).

However, as soon as the front wheels have different drag angles, or are
subjected to different friction forces, the wheel that presents a greater drag moment
imposes its action on the wheel on the opposite side.

In a vehicle with wheel traction

rear, both front wheels
to present drag rays
positives and the left wheel to present
a moment of superior dragging
to the right wheel, the left wheel will have
tendency to diverge more than the wheel
right, winning this, which will set the trend
to the vehicle to swerve to the left Fig. 1.19
(Fig. 1.19).

Direction Geometry 1.9

Direction Geometry

FACTORS THAT ALTER THE DRAG RADIUS

Change of lateral tilt of the axis

of direction

The change in the lateral inclination of

the steering axis may be due to
incorrect regulations, deformations
of the vehicle frame or monocoque,
deformations of the suspension arms
in the case of independent suspensions,
excessive wear on the joints
of the suspension or of the axle arm, etc. Fig. 1.20 – Change in axis tilt
of direction

Change of the wheel diameter

The change in the wheel diameter can be

due to the use of wheels with characteristics
different from the normal or states of
inflation of different tires.

Fig. 1.21 - Influence of the change of

diameter of the wheel in radius
de arrastamento
Note:

The skids, due to the bursting of a front tire, are largely a result of the loss
of steering control by the driver, due to the excessive and abrupt increase in momentum
dragging of the broken wheel.

1.10 Direction Geometry

 Direction Geometry

Placement of spacers between the cubes and the wheels or alteration of the concavity of the
rims

Any of these factors changes the

value of the drag radius. For
example, small differences between the
concavities of the rims used in
front wheels may be sufficient
to originate trends for the
the vehicle swerves to one side.

Fig. 1.22 – Increase in drag radius

due to à placement of
spacers

Note:
Many times spacers or wheels with greater concavity are used to widen the vehicle's track.
This practice is inadvisable due to the increased risk of accidents that such transformation entails.
can occur. This practice is often exacerbated by the fact that wheels are used with
smaller diameters.

Deformed tires

Ospneusjáusadosporvezesapresentam
the slightly conical trace, due to
excessive wear suffered by one of
sides, and in certain cases present
even a certain deformation of yours
structure (hull). Fig. 1.23 - Deformed tire

Direction Geometry 1.11

Direction Geometry

In this case, the tire support on the pavement does not occur regularly, and this slightly alters
the position of the center of friction, resulting in a change in the drag radius. When it
proceed to change wheels whose tires are in that condition, it is common for them to appear on the vehicle
trends to deviate from a straight trajectory. This type of situation is more common
with radial tires.

Tires with the tread misaligned

Sometimes, due to deficiencies of

manufacturing or retreading, appear
tires in which the tread is slightly
off-center from the casing. This situation
also leads to changes in the center
of friction and then, changes in the radii
of dragging and trends for the Fig. 1.24 – Tire with off-center tread
the vehicle swerves to one side.

The drag moment is still influenced by factors that alter the friction between the tire and
the pavement, such as:

Change in tire inflation pressure

Variation in the state of tire wear

Variation of pavement condition

Variation of load distribution on the wheels

1.12 Direction Geometry

 Direction Geometry

Generally, the factors that alter the drag radius are more stable than those
factors that alter the forces of friction on the wheel. Therefore, when it comes to carrying out
regulations usually apply to the first ones.

Stabilizing action of the lateral tilt of the steering axis

But the lateral inclination of the steering axis gives the vehicle's direction another characteristic.
quite beneficial. If we consider the fixed steering axis and turn the wheels to the left
To the right, we will see that the wheels tilt outward and at the same time descend.

Because the wheels, when turning left or right, tend to lower and,
given that in reality they cannot do it because the pavement prevents them, then they force the vehicle
to rise slightly.

Now, as the vehicle tends to

natural, due to its weight, to
keep in the lowest possible position,
regarding the pavement, so it
create a trend about wheels
to occupy a position
corresponding to the progress of the right.
Fig. 1.25 – Stabilizing effect of the slope
It is partly due to this effect that, of the steering axis
after a curve, when letting go of the
steering wheel, it tends to return to the position of

progress to the right.

Given the influence of the drag

the value of this stabilizing action of
direction, the manufacturers, in a way
generally, they opt for the use of rays of
small dragging that allows
a good stabilization of the steering without
cause vibrations in the steering wheel (Fig.
Fig. 1.26
1.26).

Direction Geometry 1.13

Direction Geometry

1.4 - CASTER ANGLE

The term 'lead angle' is used for

tilt of the steering axis for the
back or front side of the vehicle. The
the value of the lead angle is given in
degrees and their submultiples.

Fig. 1.27 - Lead angle

The advance angle is called positive.

when the steering axis is tilted
back.

Fig. 1.28 – Positive advance

The advance angle is said to be negative.

when the steering axis is tilted
forward.

Fig. 1.29 – Negative advance

It is said that the advance angle increases

whenever it becomes more positive, or
less negative.
It is said that the advance angle decreases
whenever it becomes more negative or
less positive (Fig. 1.30).
Fig. 1.30

1.14 Direction Geometry

 Geometry of Direction

Let's consider that the direction axis

is contained in the central plane of the wheel and

there is positive progress (Fig. 1.31).

Fig. 1.31

In this case, whenever the wheel moves in a straight line, there will be no radius.
of dragging, since the extension of the steering axis crosses the pavement exactly
in front of the wheel's friction center, and therefore, there will be no dragging moment.

However, as soon as the wheel is turned

to the left or to the right, for what
the vehicle describes a curve, the center of
wheel friction on the pavement shifts
it laterally and gives rise to a ray of
dragging that generates a moment of
dragging, tending to redirect the wheel
to the situation of rectilinear motion (Fig.
1.32).

Fa = Frictional force
Ra = Drag radius
Fig. 1.32
Ca = Center of friction

In more generic terms and even assuming the existence of initial drag rays,
due to the lateral placement of the steering axis, it can be said that the caster angles
positives give the vehicle a tendency to move along a straight trajectory, or
to return to her when diverted from her.

Direction Geometry 1.15

Direction Geometry

On the contrary, and following the same reasoning as in the previous two blocks, when
the advance is negative, the vehicle will tend to deviate from any straight trajectory
that is imposed on you.

Fa = Friction force
Ra = Drag radius
Ca = Center of friction

Fig. 1.33

By increasing the positive advance angle, it becomes more difficult to carry out the
turns, and a tendency is created for the steering wheel to quickly return to the driving position
law.

Loading moment

When the steering axis has caster

and is not contained in the central plan of
wheel (Fig. 1.34), but rather next to it,
a moment is generated about the wheel
called charging moment.

Fig. 1.34

1.16 Direction Geometry

 Geometry of Direction

To make it easier for us to notice

of the way the moment works
of load, let's imagine an angle
of advance of 90º. In this case, the axis
would be completely horizontal and,
due to the load of the vehicle, the wheels
they would tend to lean
totally inward (Fig. 1.35).

Fig.1.35

In the case of vehicles with an angle of

positive advance, the load will go to the wheel
tendency to rotate around the axis
of direction, in order to tilt towards
inside the vehicle, and simultaneously
to converge (Fig. 1.36).

Fig. 1.36

In the case of vehicles with an angle

from negative advance, the charge will lead to

the trend wheel to lean towards

inside and to diverge (Fig. 1.37).

Fig. 1.37

Direction Geometry 1.17

Geometry of Direction

The value of the loading moment is influenced

for the value of the advance angle, by the load
applied on the wheel (FC) and by the so-called
load arm (LA).

Fig. 1.38 - The value of the angle of

advance and the applied load
influence the moment of

The load arm is the distance between

two vertical planes, parallel to the axis
longitudinal of the vehicle, passing one by
tire support center on the ground, and another
situated on the steering axis at the level of
wheel axle (Fig. 1.39). For the same
vehicle load, the longer the arm
of load, the moment will also be greater
load. Fig. 1.39

When the advance angle, the arm of

load and the load exerted on both
the front wheels are the same, the trends
generated in a wheel are countered by
trends of equal value generated in the other
wheel, neutralizing its effects.
Under these conditions, and considering only
Fig. 1.40
As it advances, the vehicle tends to
move in a straight line (Fig. 1.40).

1.18 Directional Geometry

 Geometry of Direction

Often the load moment is used to stabilize the direction of a vehicle, when
This tends to drift to one side. Thus, altering the value of the advance angle over a
of the wheels, the tendency it has to converge or diverge on that wheel changes, in such a way
to offset identical effects produced on the other wheel.

An excessive advance angle can

turning moments of very high load
and originate oscillations in the direction and

trend for a progress in

zigzag (Fig. 1.41).
Fig. 1.41

Such oscillations are due to variations in the load moment produced by shocks between
the wheels and the pavement, which give rise to small turns of the wheels on their axis of
direction, such conditions can become quite noticeable when the vehicle moves over
the uneven pavement, mainly when the suspension dampers are located in
I want state.

When the advance is excessive and the direction becomes zigzagging, there may be room for a
abnormal tire wear, with transverse characteristics.

Factors that alter the advance angle

Among the factors that permanently alter the advance angle, we can
consider

Deformations suffered by the vehicle (deformations of the frame or

monocoque, from suspension parts, from the axle arm, etc.)

Change of the vehicle's height in relation to the ground on one of the axles.
(Mounting wheels of diameters different from the normal ones, lowering the)
suspension, etc.). For example, in a car with 2 meters of distance
between axes, a variation of 3.5 centimeters in the height of the frame together
to the rear axle causes a variation of 1° in the caster angle.

Direction Geometry 1.19

Geometry of Direction

In some vehicles, it is possible to do the

regulation of the leading angle, but in the
most of that regulation is not provided for.

Fig. 1.42 – Regulation of the angle of

advance

The advance angle can also vary.

depending on the vehicle's state of charge.
For example, in heavy vehicles with
rigid front axle, forming a
species of U widened, as the
load increases on the axis generates on
it is the trend to reduce the angle of
Fig. 1.43
advance (Fig. 1.43).

Also in certain light vehicles,

with independent suspension, the mode
how the suspension arms are fixed
allows the value of the advance angle
decrease as the load increases
Fig. 1.44
(Fig. 1.44).

1.20 Directional Geometry

 Direction Geometry

This reduction of the advance angle, when increasing the load of the vehicle in front, allows
on one hand, to keep the effort to drive the vehicle almost unchanged, and on the other, to avoid the
appearance of vibration in the steering, due to an increase in load.

It is also important to note that the

variations in the height of the vehicle's rear
depending on its state of charge, a
since they also affect the value of
advance angle. When the rear of
a vehicle lowers, the advance angle
it increases and when it rises, it decreases. Fig. 1.45 – When the rear lowers, the
advance angle increases

Secondary reactions due to the

advance angle

The positive advancement gives the wheel the

faculty to allow the board,

during the turns, lean outward
from the curve (Fig. 1.46).

This implies that during the turns, the

Fig. 1.46
positive progress aggravates the trend that the
the vehicle has to tilt to the side
out of the ordinary, due to the effect of the force
centrifuge.

On the contrary, the negative advance does

with the wheel forcing the frame to rise
in the inner area of the curve, allowing the
your descent in the outer zone. This effect
contrary to the trend that, during the
turns, the vehicle has to tilt
out of the curve, due to the effect of
centrifugal force (Fig. 1.47).
Fig. 1.47

Direction Geometry 1.21

Direction Geometry

The advance angle, whether positive or

negative, causes lateral inclinations
the wheels whenever they are apart
from the position of progress to the right (Fig.

1.48).

Fig. 1.47

The conjugation of the inclination of the wheel, due to

the lateral inclination of the steering axis
with the inclination due to an angle of
positive progress, allows for obtaining inclinations

relatively small on the wheel that remains Fig. 1.48

outside the curve, given that the
Two effects cancel each other out mutually (Fig.

1.49).

On the contrary, the wheels on the inside of the curve are strongly inclined, since the
the effects of both angles add up.

Note: In vehicles with independent suspension, a part of the change in tilt of the
wheel wear during turns may be due to
effects of suspension.

Given that the moment of load originated

by a positive advance angle gives
tendency for the wheels to converge
and, since on a curve, the wheels must
diverge, the positive advance contradicts the Fig. 1.50
execution of the turns and tends to maintain
the vehicle moving to the right (Fig.
1.50).

1.22 Direction Geometry

 Directional Geometry

In the case of a leading angle

negative, given that the loading moment
gives tendency to the wheels to diverge,
the tendency to turn the wheels remains
reinforced (Fig. 1.51).

Fig. 1.51

Note: In practice, it is verified that an angle of zero or even negative advancement, as long as it is
of small value, can create self-directing trends of similar characteristics to
indicated for a positive lead angle, albeit of a lesser value.

1.5 - ÂNGULO DE SOPÉ - CAMBER

The term 'foot angle' is given to

tilt of the wheels, outward or inward
inside, when the vehicle has the steering
oriented towards proceeding with the law. The
the base angle is given in degrees and its
submultiples.

Fig. 1.52 - Foothill angle

It is said that the base angle is positive

when, in the upper area, the wheels
are leaning outward.

Fig. 1.53 - Positive slope

Direction Geometry 1.23

Direction Geometry

It is said that the foot angle is negative.

when the wheels at the top are
leaning inward.

Fig. 1.54 – Negative slope

It is said that the base angle increases whenever it becomes more positive or less negative.

It is said that the base angle decreases whenever it becomes less positive or more negative.

Fig. 1.55 - Variation of the angle Fig. 1.56

soup

When the vehicle is in motion, it is

interest that the tire tread supports
equally about the pavement in all its
width, in order to obtain the maximum surface
of adherence, a correct distribution of
uniform load and wear of the tires. Fig. 1.57 - Variation of the foothills

with the load

1.24 Direction Geometry

 Geometry of Direction

Generally, the existence of a small positive base angle becomes advantageous, or

that is, a slight tilt of the wheel outward, taking into account the following aspects:

Compensate for the tendency of the wheel to tilt inward

when the vehicle is put in motion or applied to it a greater
load.

Compensate for the cross curvature of the road, although nowadays

this curvature is small.

a) The slope decreases with the

load increase.
b) The slope increases with the

increase in load.

Fig. 1.58

Note: In the case of independent suspensions, these can be constructed in such a way as to
increase or decrease the slope of the wheel when the vehicle load is increased.

Direction Geometry 1.25

Geometry of Direction

Fig. 1.59 Fig. 1.60

In the past, when narrow tread tires and relatively large diameter tires were used,
the foot angle was also used to reduce the rolling radius of the wheel over the
pavement (Fig. 1.59).

With the use of wide tread tires and relatively small diameter, the use of
Positive slope angles usually do not lead to a reduction in drag radius.
that, in this case, the tire's support on the ground is more intense on the outside, due to
sometimes the center of friction moves outward instead of inward, increasing the
drag radius instead of decreasing it (Fig. 1.60).

Note: In the past, the foothill angles

positives were also used for
they will allow the efforts of the wheel
about the axle sleeve if they were made
fundamentally about rolling
interior of the wheel cube, in order to
reduce the efforts on the sleeve
of the axis and avoid the wheel catching (Fig.
1.61).
Fig. 1.61

1.26 Direction Geometry

 Direction Geometry

In high-performance sports vehicles and in modern design vehicles, it is common

the use of negative slope angles. This ensures a good lateral orientation force,
Since in a curve the tire under stress will tend to increase the contact surface with the
It also has the advantage of lowering the vehicle's center of gravity.

Directional effect of the wheel due to its inclination

If you take a wheel and let it roll freely over the pavement but at a certain incline.
Lateral, it will verify that it describes a curve to the side that it is tilted.

The continental shelf should actually be shaped so that it slopes inclined towards where it is located.
it looks like a frustum of a cone (Fig. 1.62).

A truncated cone; when rolling freely, it describes a curve, given that the parts with greater
diameter, when rolling at the same rotational speed, cover a greater distance than the
of smaller diameter (Fig. 1.63).

Fig. 1.63

Fig. 1.62

The curves described by a wheel

inclined will be tighter
Fig. 1.64
the steeper the tilt of the wheel
(Fig. 1.64).

Direction Geometry 1.27

Geometry of Direction

The wheels of a vehicle also

they present this trend, but here
they do not move freely, because
are connected to each other by the axis and by the

steering mechanism components.

In this case, when the angles of
the support of the left and right wheel is
the trends generated in the wheels
they mutually cancel each other and the wheels are

thank you for walking straight (Fig. 1.65). Fig. 1.65

However, if the inclinations of the wheels, left and right, are different, then the trends
generated in them, by the foot angles, will also be different and the wheel that has a greater incline
it will tend to impose its trend on the other, forcing the vehicle to swerve to one side.

For example, if both wheels

they will have positive soups and the wheel

the right has a greater foothill than the

to the left, the vehicle will have a tendency

to veer to the right, since

is this the trend of the wheel that has
greater inclination (Fig. 1.66). Fig. 1.66

It should be mentioned here that, in the case

of a wheel to have an advance and

positive hopes, the trends generated
through these angles they contradict each other

mutually (Fig. 1.67).

Figure 1.67

1.28 Directional Geometry

 Direction Geometry

Thus, under these conditions, the base angle opposes the trend generated by the lead angle.
for the wheel to lean inward.

And while the caster angle creates a tendency for the wheel to converge, the kingpin angle creates a tendency for it.

tendency to diverge.

Effect of the slope angle on the

tires.

Returning to the example of the truncated cone,

to force him to roll right, we have

to require the parts of larger diameter
to skate on the pavement and the
smaller diameters must be dragged
about the pavement (Fig. 1.68).

Fig. 1.68

This is exactly what happens in

wheels of a vehicle when one wheel
inclined is required to move to
law. This will imply a wear and tear
quick of the tire track in the area that
patina or is dragged (Fig. 1.69).
Fig. 1.69

The wear of the tires, characteristics of excessive camber angle (positive or negative),
they present characteristics of longitudinal wear, located on the side for the wheel
it is tilted.

Since the tire tread is made of

rubber and it is quite flexible,
for small foothill angles (+ 0.5º)
this flexibility allows for making
a perfect adaptation of the trail of
tire on the ground, avoiding acceleration of the

previously mentioned wear. Fig. 1.70 – Adaptation of the track to

floor for small ones
foothill angles

Direction Geometry 1.29

Geometry of Direction

In cases where the slope angle exceeds these values, to avoid excessive wear
due to the angle of the slope, it becomes necessary to compensate for it through convergence
the divergence given to the wheels.

1.6 - COMBINED OR INCLUDED ANGLE

Combined angular momentum

or even to the algebraic sum of the angles
of slope and lateral inclination of the axis of
direction. The combined angle results
exclusivamente do formato da manga
of axis and can only be changed due to
deformation of this.

Fig. 1.71 - Included angle

Note: The term algebraic sum is given to the sum of the given values when they are positive and to their
difference, when one of them is negative.

The verification of the combined angle

allows us to determine if the sleeve of
the axis is, or is not, deformed in the direction of

vertical.

Fig. 1.72 - Manga-de-eixo

deformed

The combined angle is formed

by the sum of the foot angle with the
lateral inclination of the steering axis
when the slope is positive (Fig. 1.73)...

Fig. 1.73

1.30 Direction Geometry

 Geometry of Direction

...and by the difference between the lateral inclination

of the steering axis and foot angle,

when this is negative (Fig. 1.74).

Fig. 1.74

1.7 - CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE

The convergence (A) or divergence (B) (Fig. 1.75) indicates the difference in distances between the
edges of the two rims of an axis, measured at the front and back of it, with the steering wheel straight.

There is convergence if the distance ahead

of the axis is less than the distance behind.

There is a divergence if it happens

opposite.

It can be measured
a divergence or
convergence through the angles of
wheel deviation in relation to the trajectory
Fig. 1.75
straight line.

The convergence or divergence of the wheels is affected by a number of factors, some of which are already
described in the previous points:

The drag rays of the wheels on the pavement

sudden trend for the wheels to diverge as

The loading moments tend to cause the wheels to change.

your angle of slope and to converge or diverge
according to whether the advance angle is positive or negative.

Directional Geometry 1.31

Direction Geometry

The angle of the slope gives the wheels tendencies to diverge or

they will converge as long as this angle is positive or negative.

The flexibility of the suspension and steering mechanisms,

and possible small gaps present in the various
existing articulations in these systems allow that,
when the vehicle is put in motion, the position of the wheels
slightly alter.

To minimize resistance to
vehicle performance and wear of the
tires it is necessary that, while moving at
law, as long as the fronts are maintained
parallel to the longitudinal axis of the
vehicle. This situation is referred to as
dynamic parallelism (Fig. 1.76).

Fig. 1.76

For this to happen, it is usually necessary for the wheels, with the vehicle stopped, to show
a certain convergence. This situation is referred to as static parallelism or convergence or
static divergence.
Small values of dynamic convergence or divergence may not significantly affect.
the behavior of the vehicle or the wear of the tires.

We said in previous points that,

regarding each angle the trends
generated in one of the wheels are total or

partially annulled by the trends

equivalents generated on the side wheel
opposite.

Fig. 1.77 - A semi-convergence equal

it results in both wheels
in a straight trajectory

1.32 Direction Geometry

 Geometry of Direction

It is worth saying now that the trends

generated by the various angles on
the same wheel cancels out or
they add mutually and that, each
the wheel acts on the opposite side in
function of the results of the different
trends that affect it.

Fig. 1.78 - The trends generated by

various angles on a
the same wheel cancels out or
they add to each other

Thus, the efforts conveyed

between wheels, through the mechanism of
direcção, ficam bastante reduzidos.

Fig. 1.79 - Resultant as a function of

various angles

Poderá perguntar-se, porque é que não se constróem os veículos de forma que as tendências
generated by each of the angles are null? It was found that, in such a case, small would arise
trends, based on the state of charge, speed, etc. that made the vehicle's direction
inconstant. That's why manufacturers prefer to create well-defined trends that, when combined,
we mutually annul.

Geometry of Direction 1.33

Direction Geometry

The convergence or divergence serves to nullify the tendencies that the wheels have for
to converge or diverge, due to other characteristics of the direction and suspension.

Fig. 1.80 - Convergence or divergence compensates for the effects

two remaining angles

The arrangement and length of the steering bar segments and the steering arms
are properly calculated in such a way that the convergence variations, which occur due to
the changes in the vehicle's charge state correspond to equivalent variations resulting from
the trends that these load variations cause on the angles of the base, advance and
lateral inclination of the steering axis.

As we saw, if a wheel has a positive camber angle, it will tend to diverge.

If, in the position of proceeding to the right,

we will keep our focus on convergence,

we verified that the wheel, depending on
foot angle tends to deviate towards
one side and, depending on the convergence,
will tend to deviate to the side
opposite.

A - Trajectory that the wheel has

trend due to the angle of
positive soup.
B - Actual trajectory followed by the wheel.
C - Trajectory for the wheel
it tends due to its
convergence. Fig. 1.81

1.34 Direction Geometry

 Geometry of Direction

Under these conditions, the effective movement of the wheel will occur according to an orientation.
intermediate, thus canceling out the two trends initially verified.

In certain vehicles, the values of the

convergence undergoes changes in
function of the vehicle's charge state,
due to the rays and the centers of
oscillation of the wheels and segments of
steering bars are not coincident.

a) Change of the foothill

b) Change of convergence

Fig. 1.82

It should also be noted that, with the vehicle in motion, the wheels are
permanently in vertical oscillation, due to the successive shocks that occur between them
and the pavement. The successive positions occupied by the wheels correspond, within a certain
measure, to the load variations mentioned earlier.

That is, as the wheels oscillate

up and down, the value of
convergence can be simultaneous
altered in such a way as to maintain each

moments the suitable conditions of

functioning of the steering.
a) Vertical oscillations of the wheels.
b) Changes in convergence or
divergence
Fig. 1.83

Directional Geometry 1.35

Direction Geometry

Any irregularities in the arrangement or length of the levers, arms, steering bars.
or its segments, will result in a malfunction of the steering that often translates
in situations of vehicle instability and/or abnormal wear on the tires (Fig. 1.84).

Fig. 1.84

These defects in the steering levers on the axle sleeve are easily detectable through
from the measurement of divergence in curve.

Excessive dynamic convergence

On wheels with dynamic convergence

excessive verifies that, when they roll
about the pavement, each point of it
branch tends to move away from
longitudinal axis of the vehicle, from the
moment it touches the pavement until
that in which one separates from it.

Under these conditions, a point from the center

the tire tread, when rolling, would occupy the

Fig. 1.85
positions A, B, C, and D as shown
in Fig. 1.85.

1.36 Directional Geometry

 Geometry of Direction

However, due to the friction that is generated

between the pavement and the tire tread, this
is obliged to reflect progressively
in order to keep a distance
longitudinal axis constant of the vehicle,
as illustrated by positions E, F, G and
H from Fig. 1.86.

Fig. 1.86

When the convergence is great, it generates-

an appreciable effort of flexion
transversal in the area where the tire is
separates from the ground. As soon as this effort

can overcome the friction, the trail of

the tire slips transversely
about the pavement giving rise to a
abnormal tire tread wear (Fig. Fig. 1.87
1.87).

This abnormal wear of the tire tread,

is characterized by being a wear
transversal, but more pronounced near the
your outside flank, leaving the edges
longitudinal tire tread grooves,
shouts from outside and alive and, for
times with lamellae, on the inside.

Fig. 1.88 - Wear due to excess

convergence

Direction Geometry 1.37

Direction Geometry

Excess of dynamic divergence

In wheels with dynamic divergence

excessive, it is verified that, when
roll on the pavement, each point of the
your trail tends to come closer
from the vehicle's longitudinal axis since the
moment it touches the pavement until
the one in which he is separated from it.

Fig. 1.89

Under these conditions, a point from the center of the tire tread, when rolling, would occupy the positions A, B, C,

and D, as shown in Fig. 1.89.

However, due to the friction that is generated

between the pavement and the tire track, this
is required to gradually reflect
in order to keep a distance
longitudinal axis constant of the vehicle,
as illustrated by positions E, F, G and
H from Fig. 1.90.

Fig. 1.90

When the divergence is large it generates-

an appreciable effort of bending
transversal in the area where the tire is
separates from the soil. As soon as this effort

can overcome friction, the trail of

tire slides transversely over the
pavement resulting in wear
Fig. 1.91
abnormal tire track (Fig. 1.91)

1.38 Geometry of Direction

 Geometry of Direction

This abnormal wear of the tread of

tire is characterized by wear
transversal, but more pronounced next to the
its inner side, leaving the edges
longitudinal tire tread, rounded
on the inside and alive and sometimes in
louver, on the outside.

Fig. 1.92 – Wear due to excess

divergence

An excess of dynamic divergence or convergence, beyond the abnormal wear that

causes in the tires, leading to constant locking of the vehicle resulting in:

A greater heating of the tires;

Higher fuel consumption

Greater wear on the wheel hub bearings and

in the suspension and steering joints.

In the directional aspect, an excess of dynamic convergence or divergence can lead to:

Permanent trends for the vehicle to move towards

left or to the right;

Trends for the vehicle to swerve uncontrollably to

to the left and to the right (crazy direction) (Fig. 1.93);

Geometry of Direction 1.39

Direction Geometry

Possibilities of creating vibrations in the steering wheel

The value of convergence or divergence

dynamics is, of course, influenced
for the values of convergence or
static divergence, but, beyond
thus, suffers the effects of flexibility of
suspension and steering.

Fig. 1.93

For these reasons, a vehicle may exhibit static convergence and characteristic wear.
of dynamic divergence, or static divergence and characteristics of convergence wear
dynamic.

When a vehicle shows wear caused by dynamic convergence, it will have to

reduce static convergence or increase divergence. And, in the case of the vehicle presenting
characteristic wear of dynamic divergence will have to be reduced to static divergence or
increase convergence.

1.8 — REAR THRUST ANGLE

The rear impulse angle is the angle formed by the rear directional impulse line and the
geometric center line of the vehicle.

It is used as a basis to determine the alignment of the front axle and assist in diagnosis.

If not corrected or taken into consideration, the angle of impulse can cause direction.
decentered and excessive tire wear.

1.40 Direction Geometry

 Direction Geometry

Fig. 1.94 - Rear impulse angle

In order for there to be harmony of movement in any vehicle, it is necessary that all the wheels
describe parallel trajectories without slipping.

This result is obtained if the non-steering wheels are parallel to the longitudinal plane.
vehicle symmetry. Unless otherwise stated, this condition implies the need for both axles (real
(imaginary) are parallel. Verifying this condition is referred to as checking the alignment.
of the rear axle. This notion of control is much more important after the emergence of
cars with independent rear suspension.

It often happens that, after the adjustments of the front suspension, anomalies persist in
driving and that, by controlling the alignment of the rear wheels in relation to the front ones, it is found
important differences in convergence or divergence. This can happen as a result of
shocks suffered by the vehicle. When the rear axle does not present the possibility of adjustment,
One can always adjust the front axis to eliminate the effects of the rear thrust angle.
out of adjustment.

The following figure shows some of the different positions that the wheels can take, some in
in relation to the others, making driving more difficult.

Direction Geometry 1.41

Geometry of Direction

Fig. 1.95 - Different positions of the rear axle

1.42 Geometry of Direction

 Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

2 - MEASUREMENT AND REGULATION OF ANGLES

CHARACTERISTICS

As seen in the previous chapter, there are several factors that alter the values of the angles of the
direction geometry of a vehicle. For this reason, it is necessary to use a situation
It is necessary to proceed with the verification of the regulation status of the aforementioned angles and any eventual

corrections, if necessary.

2.1 - VEHICLE PREPARATION

Before making any verification or correction of the direction geometry angles:

Check if the vehicle is equipped with the same wheels and of the
correct dimensions at the front and back. The wheels used must be the
recommended by the vehicle manufacturer.

Check the tire pressure in the front and rear and correct it if necessary.
The pressures used must be the normal pressures, indicated by
vehicle manufacturer.

Check the bending of the front and rear wheel rims, and replace.
if necessary.

Make sure of what the maximum lean allowed by the vehicle manufacturer is (as a rule, it does not
must exceed 3 mm). To this end, start by lifting the vehicle.

Use a comparator mounted on a support. Apply the tip.

the pressure gauge of the comparator on a flat surface of the edge of
eat, so that it remains under pressure and with a reading field
adequado. Rode a roda vagarosamente e verifique quais os valores
limits indicated in the comparator. Difference between these values
corresponds to those indicated in the comparator. The difference between these

Direction Geometry 2.1

Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

Fig. 2.1

Check the play in the wheel bearings, at the front and

back, and correct it if necessary (Fig. 2.2 and 2.3).

Check the general condition of the front and rear suspension. See the
state of the springs, shock absorbers, ball joints, suspension arms,
supports, etc. The suspension parts should not show any
deformations, and the joints should not have excessive play. The
Springs and shock absorbers must be in good condition.

2.2 Direction Geometry

 Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

Check the existing play in the steering mechanism and correct it if necessary.
necessary. These gaps are primarily located at the roundabouts and
in the steering box. For this purpose, push the wheels inward and
outwards as shown on the side, in order to check if there are any gaps
abnormal.

The play in the steering wheel in general should not exceed 25 mm.
measured around its perimeter (see what tolerance is provided by the manufacturer
of the vehicle). This plays a role in certain types of steering mechanisms,
may show differences depending on the position of the wheels
they find (to the right or to curve).

Fig. 2.4 - Verification of the clearances of

Fig. 2.5 - Steering wheel play
steering mechanism

Check if the braking system is working correctly.

The malfunctioning of the braking system can cause
permanent directional irregularities or during braking.

Check the vehicle's charge state and correct it if necessary.

the vehicle's load should be as indicated for this purpose in the manual
vehicle specifications. If the vehicle's load state is different
from recommended, probably the recommended values for the
various angles of the geometry of the direction and the rear axle, also
will be different from those specified.

Directional Geometry 2.3

Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

Check the height of the vehicle or chassis in relation to the ground or in

related to the wheel axis, or through another prescribed measurement
by the vehicle manufacturer in order to inform about the locations and prices
of measurement that must be obtained.

In certain cases, manufacturers only indicate the state of charge of the vehicle, assuming
that, if the vehicle is in good condition, depending on this load condition it will remain
at the correct height.

Note: Besides what was previously mentioned

it was mentioned, there are some manufacturers that

they stipulate that their vehicles must be

positioned at specified heights,
for the purposes of verification or regulation of
direction geometry. For this purpose, by
sometimes the vehicle must be compressed against
the elevator or pit, through a tensioner
(Fig. 2.6). Fig. 2.6

To proceed with the verification of the alignment state of the steering geometry, the vehicle
It should be in an absolutely horizontal position. The front wheels should rest on
sliding and rotating plates and the rear wheels should be at the same level as the wheels of the
front. If there is a need to compensate for the thickness of the sliding plates placed underneath
under the front wheels, place wedges of the same thickness under the rear wheels.

When the vehicle has independent suspension at the rear and one wishes to take the measurement of the

rear axle geometry, it is essential to place sliding plates under the rear wheels. Before
to position the vehicle, lock the sliding or rotating plates with the pin
blocking.

2.4 Directional Geometry

 Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

Note: The placement of the sliding plates on the rear wheels is intended to allow the wheels
take your normal marching position when the vehicle is lowered, after the lift for
obtaining the performance of the wheels.

2.2 - ASSEMBLY OF MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT

ABOUT THE WHEELS

Paramount equipment supports

about the wheels should follow the instructions
given in the user manual of
equipment.

Fig. 2.7 – Assembly of the supports on

the wheels

Often, the wheel rims have small bends, and when the equipment is fixed,
these also do not remain in an absolutely parallel position to the wheel. Obviously, these
irregularities will influence the measurement values to be obtained.

To annul the bending of the rims, consult the Machine Procedures Manual that you will
to use. In the case of modern machines of
electronic alignment, the warping is
automatically compensated.

After unbending the wheels,

lower the vehicle and tilt it upwards
and downwards, several times, in order to
acquire its normal position (Fig. 2.8).

Fig. 2.8

Geometry of Direction 2.5

Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

With the vehicle on the ground, you can then measure the steering geometry.

In some equipment, it is essential that the vehicle is perfectly aligned with the
direction alignment machine. There are other equipment where this requirement is not so strict.
However, it is always preferable that it stays well aligned.

2.3 - VERIFICATION AND REGULATION OF CONVERGENCE OR

Divergence

The parallelism of the wheels is verified

with the wheels positioned at
progress to law. The measurement can
to be done directly, measuring the
distances between the edges of the rims by
front side and from the back side, at level
of the wheel axle, keeping the vehicle on a Fig. 2.9 – Verification of parallelism
flat surface. of the wheels

Measurement of convergence or divergence in millimeters or inches

As illustrated in Fig. 2.10, in a pair of

wheels placed in the same position, the
convergence measurement values or
divergences will be different, whenever
measured on corresponding points to
different diameters.
Fig. 2.10 (b - a) = (d - c) = (f - e)

Although taking measurements in relation to the same locations (edges of the rims, for example),
Differences may also arise whenever wheels or rims with diameters are used.
different, given that also, in this case, the diameters on which the measurement is made are not
identical.

2.6 Geometry of Direction

 Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

From here, one can conclude regarding the precautions to take in measuring convergence or divergence.
of the wheels, whether it is made in millimeters or inches. That is, it must take into account the
following aspects:

Measurement points considered - (Different points or diameters

Wheel or rim sizes - (Different sizes or diameters)

Equipment used to perform the measurement. (appropriate and

Measurement of convergence or
divergence in values
angular

When the measurement is made in units

angular (degrees and their submultiples)
the measurement of the angle is carried out that

the orientation of the wheels does with the axle

longitudinal of the vehicle. For that,

usually, one of the wheels is placed
in a position parallel to the longitudinal axis
of the vehicle and measures the angle that the

another wheel makes with a line parallel to

this axis. This measurement is referred to as
Fig. 2.11
total convergence or divergence.

The measurement of convergence or

divergence, in angular values, is
exempt from some of the possibilities
of error that were indicated for the
previous measurement, therefore, whenever
if possible, this process must be applied
measurement. For example, the value of
angle is independent of the diameter of the
wheel on which the measurement is made. Fig. 2.12 -a=b=

Direction Geometry 2.7

Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

Note: It is advisable to have the convergence and divergence values specified by

manufacturer, to have a basis for comparison.

The convergence or divergence values provided in the manuals are directly usable if
we will carry out the measurements using the same process that was used for the determination of these
values. When our measurement process is different, there may be a need to do
the conversion of these values, which is not always easy as it implies a perfect knowledge
the technical characteristics of both processes and sufficient knowledge to be able to
establish the correspondence between them. In modern electronic measuring machines, the
manufacturer values are available in a database, allowing for comparison
with the values measured immediately.

Regulation of convergence or divergence

The regulation of convergence or

divergence occurs through alteration
of the lengths of the bars
direction using systems of
regulation incorporated in them.
Fig. 2.13 - Regulation points of
convergence

The rod length regulation systems are usually braked through counter-
screws or through fixing clamps.

Fig. 2.14 – Braking systems of the regulation system

2.8 Geometry of Direction

 Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

To start your regulation,

brake system communication (against-
screws or clamps) using for
this the appropriate tools (Fig.
2.15)

Fig. 2.15

When regulating convergence or divergence, act in a way that does not produce decentering.
of the steering wheel. To do this, it is necessary to adjust the lengths of the bars of both
the sides. The steering wheel must remain centered and the bars must be adjusted so that
each wheel acquires the correct semi-convergence or semi-divergence.

Fig. 2.16 – Regulation of convergence or divergence with the steering wheel centered

Note: The steering system is the system that allows the vehicle to be directed while in motion.
Any failure or inaccuracy of this can have fatal consequences. Before handing over a vehicle,
make sure that all organs are properly regulated, fixed and/or braked (Fig.
2.17).

Directional Geometry 2.9

Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

Fig. 2.17

The following are some indications about

the points where regulation is carried out
convergence or divergence in some of the
most common steering mechanisms.

a) Adjust the lengths of the bars 1 Fig. 2.18 - Pendulum-driven system

and 2 simultaneously (Fig. 2.18).

b) Adjust the lengths of the bars 2

simultaneously (Fig. 2.19).

Fig. 2.19 – Rack driven systems

2.10 Direction Geometry

 Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

c) Adjust the lengths of the

bars 1 simultaneously (Fig.
2.20)

Fig. 2.20 – System with joint

helper

As mentioned earlier, the various angles of the direction geometry have interference on the
convergence or divergence values of the wheels. But, conversely, the exaggerated values of
convergence or divergence can also influence other angles. Therefore:

When starting the measurement or regulation of the steering geometry,

always start by measuring and, eventually, adjusting the
convergence or divergence.

Whenever you make changes to the lateral tilt of the axis of

direction, at the angles of base or advance, or in the centering of
steering wheel, you will have to review the values of convergence or divergence

and adjust them again if necessary.

2.4 - CHECKING AND REGULATING THE SLOPE ANGLE

If, in a given vehicle, the toe angle is adjustable and does not fall within the tolerances.
admitted by the manufacturer, or if there is a need to correct any trends through it
directional or abnormal tire wear, then corrections should be made.

Direction Geometry 2.11

Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

Before starting any work on the toe angle adjustment, consult the vehicle's manual.
in order to identify the regulatory process provided for this purpose.

In many modern vehicles, there is no provision for any process of regulating the angle of
It is accepted, in these cases, that any disruption that arises is due to warping in the
suspension arms or on the vehicle's monocoque frame. In this case, it should be checked which or
what are the damaged parts and perform or replace them as necessary.

In cases where the foot angle and combined angle have incorrect values, the deficiency
These inaccuracies can be corrected by replacing or adjusting the structure, as such inaccuracies
they are indications that it is deformed.

Measurement of the slope angle

The foot angle gives us the value of the wheel's tilt, inward or outward, whenever
the wheels are in the position of moving to the right. The measurement of the toe angle is done by measuring
the inclination of the wheel in relation to the vertical position.

Fig. 2.21 – Foot angle

The measurement of the foot angle can be done using various types of equipment. To carry out
For a precise measurement, one must carefully read the equipment usage instructions.
check the manufacturer's data to compare with the measured values.

2.12 Direction Geometry

 Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

Regulation of the toe angle

In most cases, the regulation

The angle of the foothill is made through the

change of lateral inclination of the axis of

direction.

Fig. 2.22 / Regulation of the foothill

Among the various possibilities for changing the foothill angle, we can mention the following:

1 - McPherson type suspension

Change of the upper support point of the suspension leg:

By rotation of the support, when the fixing point of the damper is off-centered (Fig. 2.23).

Fig. 2.23

Directional Geometry 2.13

Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

Note: In this process, when changing the value of the foot angle, it may also be introduced.
a change in the advance angle.

For lateral displacement of the support, when the holes of the pin mounting housing are
torn (Fig. 2.24).

Fig. 2.24

Change of position of the triangle or lower arm of

suspension

By bushings or eccentric shaft (Fig. 2.25).

By applying washers between the arm and the

arm fixation points Fig. 2.25
to the frame or monocoque
(Fig. 2.26).

Fig. 2.26

2.14 Direction Geometry

 Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

Note: In the case of the lower suspension arm being a triangle, the adjustment must be made
equally on both sides of the base, in order not to change the value of the advance angle.

By ring or eccentric bolt in the fastening

from the lower arm to the axis sleeve (Fig.
2.27)

Note: In this process, when changing the value

the base angle may also be
an alteration in the angle of
advance. If one wishes to avoid these
changes, the major axis of the eccentric
it must remain at an angle equal to the one that
made with the vehicle's transverse axis,
although directed in the opposite direction. Fig. 2.27

For an eccentric screw that alters the angular position in the sleeve of the shaft, in relation to the leg of the

suspension, when fixing one piece to another (Fig. 2.28).

2 - Suspension with double triangle

For changing the mounting points of the triangles, to the chassis or monocoque, through spacers,
eccentric bushings or eccentric shafts (Fig. 2.29).

Fig. 2.28 Fig. 2.29

Direction Geometry 2.15

Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

Note: In the case where the position of the triangles is adjusted by washers, they should be adjusted to
same mode on both sides in order not to introduce changes in the advance angle.

By rings or eccentric pins in the connection of the triangles to the shaft sleeve (Fig. 2.30).

Fig. 2.30

Note: In this system, when changing the foot angle, an alteration may also be introduced.
in the lead angle. If one wishes to avoid these changes, the major axis of the eccentric
it must remain at an angle equal to the one it made with the vehicle's transverse axis, although
directed in the opposite direction.

3 - Rigid axis

In the case of rigid axes, the regulation of the slope angle is done through the bending of the beam.
what constitutes the axis (Fig. 2.31).

Fig. 2.31

2.16 Direction Geometry

 Measurement and Regulation of Characteristic Angles

After adjusting the foot angle, make sure that all parts are
the suspension remained properly tightened and braked when this is foreseen.

2.5 – VERIFICATION AND REGULATION OF THE INCLINATION ANGLE

OF THE STEM OF THE MANGO

In the vast majority of vehicles, the angle of inclination of the axle stub does not
there is regulation. However, the verification of this assumes high importance, since
it allows for conclusions to be drawn about the condition of the steering components and the structure itself
of the bodywork.

2.6 – VERIFICATION AND REGULATION OF THE ADVANCE ANGLE

As in the other angles, checking the wheel's progress is important to conclude

regarding the condition of the direction and the bodywork itself.

In some vehicles, it is possible to adjust the

advance angle. For this, they have available

usually of a longitudinal arm

adjustable that connects to the axle sleeve

to chassis (Fig. 2.32).

Fig. 2.32

Direction Geometry 2.17

 Understeering and Oversteering

3 - UNDERSTEERING AND OVERSTEERING

Depending on various construction factors, the vehicle may exhibit behaviors

different with curved trajectories.

Among others, some factors that influence vehicle behavior are:

Type of chassis

Type of suspension

Geometry of direction

Tires

Type of traction (Front/Rear)

Location of the center of gravity

Vehicle speed

Friction of the pavement

UNDERSTEERING

When the vehicle goes into a curve, the force

centrifuge tends to displace it laterally.
In case the front wheels present
a drift angle in relation to the trajectory
larger than the rear wheels, the vehicle tends
to extend the trajectory, coming from the front. To this
this phenomenon is called understeering.

Fig. 3.1 - Understeer

Direction Geometry 3.1

Understeering and Oversteering

The cars with front-wheel drive and with the center of gravity located at the front of
the geometric center of the vehicle (in case of front engine) usually presents trends
subverters.

OVERSTEERING

Oversteering occurs when the

rear wheel drift angle is
superior to that of the front wheels. In this
if the vehicle tends to point forward
to the center of the curve, tightening the
trajectory and releasing the rear.

Usually, vehicles with traction

rear and/or center of gravity
the posterior zone shows trends
overturners.

Fig. 3.2 - Oversteer

Cars are typically designed to have a slight tendency

subversive.

This happens because, for the average driver, it is easier to control this situation, usually just requiring
ease off the accelerator. Furthermore, the typical front-wheel drive layout contributes to this tendency.

3.2 Directional Geometry

 Turning Radius

4 - TURNING RADIUS

Turn radius of sidewalk to

stroll
2. Wall turning radius to Fig. 4.1
wall
3. Vehicle rotation center

In addition to guarantee and high security and stability, the steering system must
offer great maneuverability.

For this purpose, the steering system must allow for wall-to-wall turning radii and
ride by ride, as small as possible, increasing driving comfort and ease
of executing maneuvers.

The factors that most influence the turning radius are the construction of the axle sleeve and the
dimension of the wheel well. The latter must allow the tires to rotate freely in a curve,
without being too big.

Geometry of Direction 4.1

 Rear Wheel Alignment

5 - ALIGNMENT OF THE REAR WHEELS

5.1 - SELF-DIRECTING AXLE SYSTEMS

This system consists of steering the rear wheels in a curve in order to ensure greater
stability of the automobile.

The most common systems allow a small turning angle of the rear wheels,
orienting them in phase with the front wheels (in the same direction). Usually, for this purpose, it resorts to
if using a semi-rigid axle rear suspension system or a torsion bar.

The axle is fixed to the chassis by four elastic supports, with the two most advanced arranged
at 45º. These supports are made of rubber with interposition of metal sheets,
thus achieving a different deformation depending on the direction of the force applied to them.

Thus, when executing a turn, the outer wheel, which is under greater vertical strain.
the lateral forces transmit these efforts to the axle. The elastic supports that connect the axle to the chassis
they give way to their more flexible side allowing it to orient itself in the same direction as the wheels
from the front, rotating around a fictitious center of rotation, which is located a little behind the
supports.

Fig. 5.1 - Self-direction effect

Direction Geometry 5.1

Rear Wheel Alignment

The rear axle returns to its normal position when the lateral force causing the deformation ceases.
two supports.

The steering angle of the axis is very small, generally not exceeding 1.3 to 1.4 degrees.

The pioneering brand in this type of systems was Volkswagen, with its Passat model, although already
other brands, such as Citroën, Peugeot or Rover, use it as well.

Fig. 5.2 - Self-directing axis Volkswagen

Another Japanese manufacturer, Mazda, using the RX7 a system of independent wheel suspension
that allows the rear wheels to be oriented in phase and out of phase with respect to the wheels
front (same direction and opposite direction). Thus, if the lateral acceleration is less than 0.4
The rear wheels are oriented in the opposite direction to the front wheels, facilitating the entry.
in a curve. When the lateral acceleration exceeds 0.5 g, in full curve, the rear wheels are
oriented in the same direction as the front ones, improving the stability of the vehicle.

This effect is achieved using bushings with special elastic properties.

5.2 Direction Geometry

 Rear Wheel Alignment

Fig. 5.3 - Mazda RX7 self-directional system

These systems can be referred to as passive systems, as they act based on

the forces generated by the friction between the tires and the pavement. If this friction is not sufficient
high, the rear axle does not undergo any orientation.

5.2 - FOUR WHEEL STEERING SYSTEMS

The big difference between a four-wheel steering system and any of the previously mentioned ones
It directs the rear wheels without depending on external forces to the vehicle.

The rear wheels are steered by the action of the steering wheel, just like the front ones, needing
auxiliary steering mechanisms.

As advantages, we can define:

Smaller turning radius

Easier handling

Greater stability in curves at high speed

These systems allow the rear wheels to turn in the opposite direction to the front ones.
(allowing for a smaller turning radius and greater ease of cornering) and in the same direction
of these (increased stability in curve).

Direction Geometry 5.3

Rear Wheel Alignment

The direction of the rear wheel steering generally depends on the speed of the vehicle.
and/or the angle of turning of the front wheels, we then have that the rear wheels can only
face in the opposite direction to the front if the speed is above 30-40 km/h, or if the
front wheels having a turning angle greater than about 20º. Otherwise, the
rear wheels are oriented in phase. This allows for good maneuverability at low speeds and
in tight curves, ensuring stability at high speeds.

Honda and Nissan are the brands that dominate this type of systems.

The development of electronics has made it possible to improve these systems, making it possible
to adjust the rear wheels based on the vehicle's speed, the speed with which it
turn the steering wheel and its turning angle. There are systems that allow for correction of deviations
caused by cross winds, road slopes, and other forces transmitted to the vehicle.

Fig. 5.4 – Operation of the 4WS system

5.4 Direction Geometry

 Influence of Suspension on Steering

6 - INFLUENCE OF SUSPENSION ON STEERING

All wheels of a vehicle are fixed at the ends of the axles or at the ends of the
suspension levers. The irregularities of the ground cause vertical oscillations of each wheel,
on one side and the other side of an average position that depends on the vehicle's current load.
These vertical movements cause, in front and behind, a more or less pronounced deformation.
of the geometric position of the wheels. However, these deformations also depend on the systems
of suspension; the types of independent wheels offer greater variations than those of axle
rigid.

In principle, the following reactions in independent wheels must be taken into account:

For equal double triangles: variation of the way, but

constant wheel base angle

For unequal double triangles: variation of the angle of

sopé of the wheel, but constant sight;

McPherson type: variation of the track and the camber angle,

this can become negative under strong loads;

Through longitudinal arms: slope and angle of the wheel base

constants.

The solid wheels on a rigid axle undergo few variations. However, if the axle is connected to the
chassis with leaf springs or by longitudinal arms, the angle of inclination of the spindle of the
The axle sleeve will increase with the load. On the other hand, each lift of one of the wheels of a
the axis will also cause a modification of the foot of the two wheels and a longitudinal displacement
of the axis.

This longitudinal displacement is due to the fact that the leaf springs or the bars are
articulated at a point on the chassis.

Direction Geometry 6.1

Influence of Suspension on Steering

In its vertical movements, the axis describes a curve centered on the joint of the point.
fixed. This phenomenon is especially sensitive in curves, when the vehicle leans outward.
The corresponding spring descends and retracts the end of the axle, while the internal spring
bends, causing the axis to advance. Consequently, the latter takes an oblique position in
in relation to the normal position. Now, as it manifests in the rear axle, this obliquity tends to direct
the wheels outside the curve, reinforcing the phenomenon of oversteer.

In a curve, the tilt of the rear axle exerts an influence on the turning angles of the
directing guidelines. It is known, in fact, that the center of the curve described by the vehicle is always
placed in the projection of the rear axle and that the steering angles of the front wheels are
conditioned by the projection of this center. As the obliquity of the rear axis causes a shift of the
the theoretical center of the curve, it is necessary for the turning angles of the guiding wheels to correspond
to this real situation at the center of the described curve. Those indicated by the manufacturers have in
count the modifications due to the vehicle's suspension components in question. That is why
frequently verifies a slight difference between the theoretical turning angles and the angles
taxes for practical vehicle tests.

Currently, there is a trend to install in vehicles, both on the rear and front axles,
independent suspensions of the 'multilink' type. This system consists of connecting the wheel
to the chassis through several tie rods. With this system, it is intended that the steering remains
its geometric characteristics remain constant during the movement of the vehicle. In addition,
on the rear axle, the way the links are connected (usually through rubber supports
with special elastic characteristics) allows for self-steering of the wheels in curves
accentuated.

6.2 Direction Geometry