Applied Chemistry for Smart Systems (CSE stream)

Course Code: 1BCHES102/202

Module-4: Sensors and Corrosion Science

Sensors: Introduction, terminologies-Transducer, Actuators and Sensors. Conductometric

sensor-principle, construction and its application in the estimation of acid mixture.
Colorimetric sensor-principle, instrumentation and its application in the estimation of
copper in PCB. Electrochemical gas sensors- principle, construction and its application in the
detection of NOx and SOx in air sample. Biosensor-principle, construction and working for
the detection of glucose in biofluids.
Corrosion: Introduction, electrochemical theory of corrosion, types of corrosion-differential
metal and differential aeration corrosion-waterline and pitting corrosion. Corrosion control-
galvanization and anodization. Vapour corrosion inhibitors for protecting computer circuit
boards, corrosion penetration rate (CPR)-definition and numerical problems

Sensors:
Sensors are basically devices which “read” a physical stimulus, and then convert that
reading into an electrical signal output.
Physical Stimulus: heat, light, sound, weight, attraction
Examples: temperature sensors, pressure sensors, gas sensors etc.

Transducer:
A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another.
Example: A microphone converts sound waves (mechanical energy) into electrical signals
& Electrochemical cell convert chemical energy into electrical energy.

Actuator:
An actuator is a device that converts electrical signals into physical action or movement.
Examples: Electric motors (like servo and stepper motors), hydraulic cylinders, pneumatic
cylinders, and solenoid valves.

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Relationship Between Sensor, Transducer, and Actuator

Device Function Energy Conversion Type

Sensor Measures physical quantity → Physical energy → Electrical energy

electrical signal

Transduce energy conversion devices Converts energy from one form to

r another

Actuator Electrical signal → Mechanical Electrical energy →

movement Mechanical/Physical energy

Conductometric sensor
A conductometric sensor measures changes in the electrical conductivity of a material
when exposed to a target analyte liquid. It is based on the measurement of the specific
conductance of an analyte.

Construction
 A conductometric sensor consists of two inert
metal electrodes.
 Those two electrodes are separated at a certain
fixed distance before applying AC voltage, which
later causes current flow.
 The sensor is immersed in the conductive liquid
which acts as the electrical conductor between the
sensor electrodes.

Working principle

 When the sensor is exposed to the target analyte, molecules of the analyte interact
with the sensing material.
 The basic principle of a conductometric sensor involves a reaction that changes the
ionic species concentration as well as the conductance between the electrodes. That
affects electrical conductivity or current flow.
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  The analyzer applies an alternating voltage to the drive coil, which induces a voltage
in the liquid surrounding the coil. The voltage causes an ionic current flow
proportional to the conductance of the target analyte.

Applications
 Industrial Process Control: Controlling gas concentrations in manufacturing
processes
 Water quality: Monitoring the quality of industrial water
 Biomedical sensor: Detecting biological analytes in body fluids
 Environmental Monitoring: Monitoring pollution levels and air quality
 Humidity Sensing: Measuring moisture levels in air and weather stations.

Application of conductometric sensor in the estimation of an acid mixture

Conductometric sensors are used to estimate an acid mixture (strong acid HCl and weak acid
CH3COOH) by monitoring the change in electrical conductivity during titration with a
standard strong base (NaOH). As the base neutralizes the stronger acid first and then the
weaker acid, the ionic concentration (H+, OH-, Na+ and Cl-) of the solution changes, producing
two distinct conductivity breaks (neutralization points). From these neutralization points,
the amount of each acid present in the mixture can be accurately determined.

Colorimetric Sensor

A colorimetric sensor detects the presence or concentration of a target analyte by

producing a measurable color change.

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Working Principle

 Initial State: The sensing material (such as dyes, nanoparticles, or functionalized

polymers) has a baseline color (often transparent or a specific color).
 Exposure to Analyte: When the sensor comes in contact with the target analyte
(gas, liquid, or ion), a chemical reaction or binding event occurs between the analyte
and the sensing reagent.
 Color Change: This interaction alters the optical properties (absorption or
reflectance) of the sensing material, causing a visible color change at specific
wavelengths.
 Detection: The color change can be observed visually or measured quantitatively
using optical devices (like spectrophotometers or cameras).
 Correlation: The intensity of the color correlates with the concentration of the
analyte.

Applications of Colorimetric Sensors:

 Environmental Monitoring: Detection of toxic gases such as NH₃, NO₂ and Cl₂ to
monitor air quality.
 Healthcare: Used for blood glucose monitoring, pH measurement in body fluids
 Food Safety: Monitoring food freshness and spoilage
 Industrial Applications: Detecting gas leaks and monitoring chemical
concentrations in manufacturing processes.

Applications of Colorimetric Sensors in the estimation of copper in PCB

Colorimetric sensors are used to estimate copper in printed circuit boards (PCB) by
measuring the color change produced when copper ions react with a specific reagent to
form a colored complex, such as with ammonia. The intensity of the color, measured using
a colorimeter or spectrophotometer, is directly proportional to the concentration of copper
present. This technique is simple, cost-effective, and allows rapid monitoring of copper
during PCB manufacturing, quality control, and recycling.

Electrochemical Gas Sensor for SOx and NOx Detection

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Electrochemical gas sensors detect toxic gases like sulfur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides
(NOx) by measuring the electrical current generated from the redox (oxidation-
reduction) reactions of these gases at an electrode surface.

Construction
 Working electrode (sensing electrode): Gold
 Counter electrode: Platinum to complete the circuit.
 Reference electrode: Ag/AgCl to maintain a constant potential
 Electrolyte: ionically conducting materials (3-7M H2SO4)
 Membrane: A gas-permeable membrane is used to control the gas flow reaching the
electrode surface.
 Filter: to filter out the unwanted gas

Working principle

 Gas Diffusion: The target gas (SOx or NOx) diffuses through a porous membrane or
diffusion barrier to the sensor’s working electrode.

 Electrochemical Reaction at Working Electrode: The gas undergoes a redox

reaction (oxidation or reduction) on the electrode surface.

Working electrode (Anode): SO2 + H2O SO3 + 2 H+ + 2 e-

Counter electrode (Cathode): (1/2) O2 + 2 H+ + 2 e- H2O

Working electrode (Anode): NO + H2O NO2 + 2 H+ + 2 e-

Counter electrode (Cathode): (1/2) O2 + 2 H+ + 2 e- H2O

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  Electron Transfer and Current Generation: The redox reaction causes electron
transfer at the working electrode, generating a measurable current proportional to
the gas concentration.

 Signal Output: The current produced is directly proportional to the concentration

of SOx or NOx, allowing quantitative detection.

Biosensor for Glucose Detection

Principle
 A glucose biosensor detects glucose concentration by converting the biochemical
reaction of glucose with an enzyme into an electrical signal.
 It is based on the specific enzymatic reaction of glucose with glucose oxidase (GOx).
 The enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of glucose, generating a measurable product
that correlates with glucose concentration.
Constructions:
 A glucose biosensor is constructed from three main functional components:
 Analyte: The substance being measured glucose in a biofluid (blood, saliva, tears,
or interstitial fluid).
 Bioreceptor: The biological sensing element, typically the enzyme Glucose
Oxidase (GOx), which is immobilized on the sensor.
 Transducer: The physicochemical detector that converts the bio-recognition event
(the chemical reaction) into a measurable electrical signal by electrochemical
electrode (Carbon working electrode & Ag/AgCl reference electrode).
Working Mechanism:

 Enzymatic Reaction: Glucose in the biofluid reacts with an enzyme glucose oxidase
immobilized on the sensor surface (gold electrode) placed on graphene layers.

 Electrochemical Detection: The hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) produced is oxidized at

the electrode, generating electrons and producing an electrical current:

 Signal Generation: The electrical current generated is proportional to the

concentration of glucose in the sample.

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Metallic Corrosion

Metallic corrosion is the gradual degradation of metals due to chemical or electrochemical

reactions with their environment.
Example: Rusting of iron

Electrochemical Theory of Corrosion

The electrochemical theory of corrosion explains corrosion as a redox reaction occurring
in the presence of moisture and oxygen. It involves the formation of anodic and cathodic
regions on the metal surface.

Mechanism of Iron Corrosion:

Formation of Anodic and Cathodic Sites:
o Due to surface impurities, iron (Fe) develops anodic and cathodic regions in
the presence of an electrolyte (e.g., water with dissolved oxygen).
Anodic Reaction (Oxidation):
o At the anode, iron loses electrons and forms iron ions: Fe → Fe2+ + 2 e-
o This reaction leads to the dissolution of iron.
Cathodic Reaction (Reduction):
o The electrons lost by iron are accepted by oxygen and water at the cathodic
region: O2 + 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2O

o In neutral or slightly basic conditions, the reaction is: O2 +

2 H2O + 4e− → 4 OH−

Formation of Rust (Hydrated Iron Oxide):

o The Fe²⁺ ions react with OH⁻ to form iron(II) hydroxide: 2

Fe2+ + 4 OH− → 2 Fe(OH)2

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 o Further oxidation of Fe(OH)₂ in air leads to rust [hydrated iron(III) oxide]:
4 Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O→ 2 [Fe2O3.3H2O] Yellow rust

o In the presence of oxygen, ferrous hydroxide is converted into magnetic

oxide, known as black rust. 3
Fe(OH)2 + ½ O2 → Fe3O4.3H2O Black rust

Types of Corrosion:

a) Differential Metal Corrosion (Galvanic Corrosion)

This type of corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are in electrical contact in the
presence of an electrolyte (such as water or moisture). The metal with a lower electrode
potential (anode) corrodes faster, while the other (cathode) is protected.
Example:
 When iron and copper are in contact in seawater, iron corrodes faster, while copper
remains unaffected.
Corrosion reactions:
At anode: Fe → Fe2+ + 2e-
At cathode: O2 + 2 H2O + 4e- → 4 OH-
Fe2+ + 2 OH- → 2 Fe(OH)2
4Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O→ 2 [Fe2O3.3H2O]

b) Differential Aeration Corrosion

This occurs due to variations in oxygen concentration in different parts of a metal surface
exposed to an electrolyte. The region with less oxygen concentration (anode) corrodes
faster, while the area with more oxygen concentration (cathode) remains protected.

Example:
 Pitting Corrosion &
waterline corrosion:
In water tanks, stagnant
water areas have lower
oxygen, causing

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 localized corrosion (pits).

Water line corrosion

 Waterline corrosion occurs on metal structures at the waterline, where the surface is
exposed to both air and water.
 The portion above the waterline is exposed to high oxygen concentration, acts as a
cathodic area, and remains unaffected.
 While the portion below the waterline has a low oxygen concentration acts as an
anodic area that undergoes corrosion.
 A distinct brown line is formed just below the water line due to the deposition of rust.

Corrosion Reactions:
At anode: Fe → Fe2+ + 2e-
At cathode: O2 + 2 H2O + 4e- → 4 OH-
2 Fe2+ + 4 OH- → 2 Fe(OH)2
4 Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O→ 2 [Fe2O3.3H2O]

Pitting line corrosion

 Pitting line corrosion arises when a small portion of the metallic surface is covered
by dust or oil drops.
 The metal portion below the dust which is exposed to a low oxygen concentration
acts as an anodic area that undergoes corrosion and a pit is formed.
 The whole remaining part of the metal which is exposed to a high oxygen
concentration acts as a cathodic area and remains unaffected.

Corrosion Reactions:
At anode: Fe → Fe2+ + 2e-
At cathode: O2 + 2 H2O + 4e- → 4 OH-
2 Fe2+ + 4 OH- → 2 Fe(OH)2
4 Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O→ 2 [Fe2O3.3H2O]

Corrosion Control

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Corrosion control is the set of methods used to prevent or reduce the deterioration of
metals caused by chemical or electrochemical reactions with their environment (such as air,
water, or chemicals). It includes techniques like painting, galvanization, cathodic protection,
alloying, and using inhibitors.

Here are the main reasons why corrosion control is important:

 Prevents damage to structures and equipment: Corrosion weakens metals,
leading to cracks, leaks, or collapse in pipelines, bridges, buildings, and machines.
 Increases lifespan of materials: Controlling corrosion ensures that metals and
alloys last longer, reducing the need for frequent replacement.
 Reduces economic loss: Industries spend huge amounts on repairing or replacing
corroded parts. Preventing corrosion saves money.
 Ensures safety: Corroded parts in vehicles, aircraft, chemical plants, and power
plants can cause accidents.
 Maintains efficiency: Corrosion reduces the efficiency of engines, boilers, and
pipelines by blocking or roughening surfaces.
 Prevents contamination: In food, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries,
corrosion can contaminate products, making them unsafe.

Galvanization

Galvanization is the process of coating iron or steel with a protective layer of zinc to
prevent rusting. The zinc coating acts as a barrier and provides sacrificial protection when
exposed to moisture and air.

Hot-dip galvanization involves the following steps:

 Surface Cleaning – The iron object is cleaned using acid (pickling) or alkali
solutions to remove rust, dirt, and grease.
 Fluxing – The cleaned iron is treated with a zinc ammonium chloride solution to
prevent oxidation before dipping.
 Dipping in Molten Zinc – The iron is immersed in molten zinc at around 450°C,
forming a strong metallurgical bond with the surface.
 Cooling & Solidification – The coated iron is removed and cooled, allowing the
zinc layer to solidify.
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  Removal of excess zinc – Excess zinc is released by passing the metal through
rollers (or) by wiping.
 Inspection–The final product is checked for uniform coating and durability.

Applications of Galvanized Iron

 Roofing sheets, pipes, and wires for construction

 automotive parts and agricultural equipment
 Household Items
 Electrical Equipment
 Water supply pipes

Anodization
Anodization is the process of oxidation of the outer layer of metal to its metal oxide by
electrolysis. The metal oxide layer formed through anodization serves as a protective
barrier between the metal substrate and the surrounding environment.

Cleaning: The aluminum surface is cleaned with alkaline or acidic solutions to remove dirt,
grease, and oxides.
Electrolytic Bath: The aluminum workpiece is placed in an electrolyte solution (usually
chromic acid) and connected to the anode in an electrolytic cell.
Electrolysis: When current is passed through the electrolyte, oxygen is released at the
aluminum surface, reacting with the metal to form a thick aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) layer.

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Sealing: The porous oxide layer is sealed by
immersing the anodized aluminum in hot water to
close the pores, improving corrosion resistance.

Cell Reaction
Anode reaction: 2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 6H+ +6e-
Cathode reaction: 6H+ + 6e- → 3H2
Overall: 2Al +3H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2

Applications:
 Aerospace Industry: Used in aircraft components
 Automobile Industry: Used in car parts
 Electronics: in smartphone casings
 Architectural Applications: Used in window frames, doors
 Kitchenware

Vapour Corrosion Inhibitors (VCIs) for Protecting Computer Circuit

Boards

Vapour Corrosion Inhibitors (VCIs)

VCIs are chemical substances that sublimate or evaporate at room temperature to produce
a protective vapor. These vapors adsorb on metal surfaces and form a thin, protective
molecular layer that inhibits corrosion.

They are widely used for protecting metal parts during storage and transportation.

Working Principle:

 VCI molecules volatilize and spread into the sealed package containing the circuit
board.
 These vapors condense and adsorb on metallic surfaces like connectors, solder
joints, and leads.
 A thin molecular film forms, blocking moisture, oxygen, and other corrosive agents.
 This protective layer prevents oxidation and corrosion without leaving sticky
residues, ensuring the board is ready for use after unpacking.

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Applications of Vapour Corrosion Inhibitors (VCIs) for Computer Circuit Boards

 Moisture Protection – VCIs form a molecular barrier on metal contacts and solder
joints, preventing oxidation due to humidity.
 Storage and Shipping – Circuit boards packed with VCI films, papers, or enclosures
remain corrosion-free during transport and long-term storage.
 Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Safety – Many VCI packaging materials are designed to
be antistatic, giving dual protection against both corrosion and static damage.
 Complex Surface Coverage – VCIs reach crevices, connectors, and fine solder points on
PCBs where direct coatings are difficult.

Advantages:
Non-contact protection: No need for coatings that might interfere with electronics.
Effective in enclosed spaces: Vapors can reach hidden parts.
Residue-free and clean: Ideal for sensitive electronic components.
Easy application: Incorporated in packaging materials or sprays.

Corrosion Penetration Rate (CPR)

The speed at which any metal in a specific environment
deteriorates due to a chemical reaction in the metal when it is
exposed to a corrosive environment.
The CPR is calculated as follows:
𝐾𝑥𝑊
CPR =
𝐷𝑥𝐴𝑥𝑇

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Where, K = a constant (constant depends on the unit used)
When K = 534, the CPR unit is mpy ; when K = 87.6, CPR unit is mm/yr

W = total weight lost, T = time taken for the loss of metal , A = the surface area of the exposed
metal, D = the metal density in g/cm³ [1 inch2 = 6.45 cm2]

Numerical on Corrosion penetration rate (CPR)

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