Ravi Shankara.M.N.

ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore

Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

MODULE 1 - DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES

Syllabus -Phase shift Keying techniques using coherent detection: generation, detection and error probabilities of BPSK and
QPSK, M–ary PSK, M–ary QAM. Frequency shift keying techniques using Coherent detection: BFSK generation, detection and
error probability. Non coherent orthogonal modulation techniques: BFSK, DPSK Symbol representation, Block diagrams
treatment of Transmitter and Receiver, Probability of error (without derivation of probability of error equation).

Introduction
Digital data (sequence of 0’s and 1’s) modulates the characteristics of high frequency carrier
c(t) = AC cos(2πfCt + Φ).
Based on this, there are three modulation schemes namely
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) – Digital data modulates only the amplitude of the carrier.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) – Digital data modulates only the frequency of the carrier.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) - – Digital data modulates only the phase of the carrier.

Choice of Modulating techniques are based on

[Link] data rate 2. Minimum circuit complexity 3. Maximum resistance to interfering signals
4. Minimum channel bandwidth 5. Minimum transmitting power [Link] Probability of Symbol error.

Coherent digital modulation techniques are those techniques which employ coherent detection. In coherent
detection, the local carrier generated at the receiver is phase locked with the carrier at the transmitter. Thus, the
detection is done by correlating the received noisy signal and locally generated carrier. The coherent detection
is also called Synchronous detection.
Demodulation of Bandpass signals
Coherent Detection Non-Coherent Detection
Local oscillator is used to generate the carrier at the The carrier at the receiver is not synchronized
receiver in phase (synchronized) with the carrier used with the carrier at the transmitter side.
at the transmitter. Probability of errors are high and circuit
This minimizes the probability of error and increases complexity is less and implementation is easy
the system complexity and implementation.

1.1 - Relationship between Amplitude and Bit Energy of the signal

Energy is the capacity to do work and energy consumed do work in unit time is known as Power.
P = (W/t) or Work done = (Power).(time)
This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 1
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

Let x(t) = A cos(2πfct) be the signal with peak amplitude A and the power associated with the signal is
A2 A2
given by P = =
2R R=1 2

Let Eb be the energy of the signal and the time duration be Tb.

A2 2Eb
Energy Eb = Power P × time Tb = T or A=
2 b Tb

2E b
Hence the signal x(t) can be expressed as x(t) = cos(2πfct)
Tb

1.2 PSK Techniques Using Coherent Detection

In Phase Shift Keying (PSK), the phase of the analog carrier signal is switched according input digital signal.
This scheme is analogous to Phase Modulation (PM).
1.2(1) -Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) using Coherent detection
In Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK), the phase of the carrier is modulated by the binary symbols 1 and 0.
The pair of signals s1(t) and s2(t) are used to represent binary symbols 1 and 0 respectively and are defined as

2𝐸𝑏
𝑆𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 1; 𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏 − − − − − − − −(1)
𝑇𝑏

2𝐸𝑏 2𝐸𝑏
𝑆𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 0; 𝑠2 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡 + 𝜋) = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏 − − − (2)
𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑏
where Tb is the bit duration and Eb is the transmitted signal energy per bit.
From this pair of equations it is clear that in BPSK, there is only one basis function of unit energy
2
∅1 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑏
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
The signals s1(t) and s2(t) can be represented using the basis function Φ1(t) as
𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑏 ∅1 𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
𝑠2 𝑡 = − 𝐸𝑏 ∅1 𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
Constellation Diagram
A binary PSK system is, therefore, characterized by having a signal space that is one-dimensional (i.e., N = 1),
with a signal constellation consisting of two message points (i.e., M = 2). The respective coordinates of the two
message points are Waveforms representing
𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑏 signals s1(t) and s2(t )
constitute antipodal signals
𝑆11 = 𝑠1 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸𝑏 ∅1 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸𝑏
and the binary constellation
0 0
𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑏 diagram has minimum
average energy.
𝑆21 = 𝑠2 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝐸𝑏 ∅1 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝐸𝑏
0 0
Hence the message point corresponding to s1(t) is located at 𝑆11 = + 𝐸𝑏 and the message point corresponding
to s2(t) is located at 𝑆21 = − 𝐸𝑏 .
Figure below shows the constellation diagram and waveform of s1(t) and s2(t).

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 2
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

1.2(2) - Generation of a Binary PSK (BPSK) signal

The generator (transmitter) consists of two components:
1. Polar NRZ-level encoder, which represents symbols 1 and 0 of the incoming binary sequence by amplitude
levels + 𝐸𝑏 . and − 𝐸𝑏 respectively.
2. Product modulator, which multiplies the output of the polar NRZ encoder by the basis function Φ1(t) acts as
the “carrier” of the binary PSK signal.

The output of product modulator can be expressed as

2𝐸𝑏
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑏 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝐶 𝑡
𝑇𝑏
1; 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 1
Where 𝑏 𝑡 =
−1; 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 0

1.2(3) - BPSK Receiver / Coherent Detection

To make an optimum decision on the received signal x(t), the receiver is synchronized with the transmitter.
The two basic components in the binary PSK receiver: are
1. Correlator, which correlates the received signal x(t) with the basis function φ1(t) on a bit-by-bit basis.
2. Decision device, which compares the Correlator output against a zero-threshold, assuming that binary
symbols 1 and 0 are equi-probable.
Bandwidth of BPSK signal
The spectrum of BPSK signal is centered
around the carrier frequency fC.
Also fb = (1/Tb), hence for BPSK, the
maximum frequency in the baseband
signal is fb.
Minimum bandwidth BWmin = 2fb

If the threshold is exceeded, a decision is made in favor of symbol 1; if not, the decision is made in favor of
symbol 0.

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 3
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

1.2(4) -Error Probability of Binary PSK Using Coherent Detection

With coherent detection in place, the decision rule is to
decide that signal s1(t) (i.e., binary symbol 1) was
transmitted if the received signal point falls in region Z1 and
to decide that signal s2(t) (i.e., binary symbol 0) was
transmitted if the received signal point falls in region Z2.
Two kinds of erroneous decisions are possible:
(i) Error of the first kind:- Signal s2(t) is transmitted but the noise is such that the received signal point falls
inside region Z1; so the receiver decides in favor of signal s1(t).
(ii) Error of the second kind:- Signal s1(t) is transmitted but the noise is such that the received signal point
falls inside region Z2; so the receiver decides in favor of signal s2(t).
Let x(t) be the received signal and x(t) = s(t) + w(t) ---------------(1) In digital communication, the complementary error
function (erfc) is a mathematical function that is used
to model the performance of communication systems
Where w(t) is AWG with zero mean PSD (NO/2) in the presence of noise and interference.
It is closely related to the Gaussian probability
𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑏 ∅1 𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 1 distribution function (PDF) and is commonly used to
𝑥 𝑡 = characterize the error probability of digital modulation
𝑠2 𝑡 = − 𝐸𝑏 ∅1 𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 0 schemes such as binary phase shift keying (BPSK),
quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK), and other forms
of quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).
Assume that the symbol 0 is transmitted, the output of the correlator The complementary error function, denoted as erfc(x),
is defined as: erfc(x) = 1 - erf(x)
in BPSK detector is given by where erf(x) represents the error function. The error
function is a mathematical function that describes the
𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑏 probability of an event occurring within a range of
𝑥1 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [𝑠2 𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑡 ]∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 values, assuming a Gaussian distribution. It is defined
0 0 as
2 𝑥 −𝑡 2
𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑏 erf 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 0
𝑥1 = 𝑠2 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝐸𝑏 + 𝑤1 The complementary error function, erfc(x), is
0 0 essentially the probability of an event falling outside
the range of values defined by x. It is commonly used
Mean value of x1 in digital communication to determine the bit error rate
(BER) or symbol error rate (SER) of a communication
system in the presence of noise. The erfc function is
𝜇𝑥1 = 𝐸 𝑥1 = 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑏 + 𝑤1 = 𝐸[− 𝐸𝑏 ] + 𝐸 𝑤1 particularly useful for evaluating the performance of
communication systems that employ coherent
detection, where the received signal is compared with
𝜇𝑥1 = − 𝐸𝑏 + 0 = − 𝐸𝑏 a known reference to make decisions about the
transmitted data.
Variance of x1 By using the complementary error function,
communication system designers can analyze the
impact of noise and interference on the performance of
𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑥1 = 𝑉𝑎𝑟 − 𝐸𝑏 + 𝑤1 = 𝑉𝑎𝑟[− 𝐸𝑏 ] + 𝑉𝑎𝑟 𝑤1 their systems and make informed decisions about
system parameters, such as signal-to-noise ratio
𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜 (SNR), modulation scheme, and error correction
𝜎𝑥1 2 = 0 + = coding, to achieve the desired level of performance
2 2 and reliability.
Conditional probability of the receiver deciding in favour
of symbol 1 given that symbol 0 is transmitted is defined by
1 (𝑥 − 𝜇𝑥1 )2
𝑓𝑋1 𝑥1 |0 = exp −
2𝜋𝜎𝑥1 2 2𝜎𝑥1 2
2
1 (𝑥 − (− 𝐸𝑏 ))2 1 𝑥 + 𝐸𝑏
𝑥1 |0 = exp − = exp −
𝑁 𝑁𝑜 𝜋𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜
2𝜋 2𝑜 2 2

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 4
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

Let Pe(0) denotes the probability of error when 0 is transmitted. Region 1 (symbol 1) - range ( 0  x1   )
2
∞ ∞ − −𝑥 1 + 𝐸𝑏
1 𝑁𝑜
𝑃𝑒 0 = 𝑓𝑋1 𝑥1 |0 𝑑𝑥1 = e 𝑑𝑥1
0 𝜋𝑁𝑜 0

𝑥 1 + 𝐸𝑏 𝐸𝑏
put z = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥1 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑑𝑧 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑜 ∞
𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜

∞ ∞
1 2 1 2 1
𝑃𝑒 0 = e− z 𝑁𝑜 𝑑𝑧 = e−z 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 𝑧
𝜋𝑁𝑜 𝑧=
𝐸𝑏 𝜋 𝑧 2
𝑁𝑜

Complimentary Error Function erfc(u)

1 𝐸𝑏 2 ∞ −u 2
𝑃𝑒 0 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 − − − − − −𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 𝑢 =
𝜋 𝑢
e 𝑑𝑢
2 𝑁𝑜
∞
1 1 2
𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 𝑢 = e−u 𝑑𝑢
2 𝜋 𝑢
Similarly the probability of error Pe(1) when transmitted symbol l
𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 −𝑢 = −𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 𝑢 − − − 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
and received symbol is 0 (error of second kind) can be written as 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 −𝑢 = 2 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 𝑢
1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 1 = 1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 −
1 𝐸𝑏 2 𝑁𝑜
𝑃𝑒 1 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 − − − − − −𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑑
2 𝑁𝑜 𝑃𝑒 1 = 1 −
1
2 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
𝐸𝑏
=
1
𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
𝐸𝑏
2 𝑁𝑜 2 𝑁𝑜

For equi-probable symbols, the average probability error is given by

1 1 𝐸𝑏 1 1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃 0 𝑃𝑒 0 + 𝑃 1 𝑃𝑒 1 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 + 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 2 𝑁𝑜 2 2 𝑁𝑜

1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 = 2 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 𝑁𝑜
Q function
In terms of Q function 1 𝑥
𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 2
1 𝐸𝑏 1 2𝐸𝑏 /𝑁𝑜 2𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 =𝑄
2 𝑁𝑜 2 2 𝑁𝑜

In digital communication, the Q-function or Q(x), is a mathematical function that is closely related to the complementary error function (erfc). The Q function
is commonly used to analyze and evaluate the performance of communication systems, especially those employing digital modulation schemes in the presence
of additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN).
1 𝑥
The Q function is defined as: 𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 2
where erfc(x) is the complementary error function. The Q function represents the tail probability of a standard normal distribution, which is a Gaussian
distribution with zero mean and unit variance. It gives the probability that a random variable following a standard normal distribution will exceed a given
threshold.
In digital communication, the Q function is primarily used to calculate the bit error rate (BER) or symbol error rate (SER) of a communication system. The
BER or SER is a measure of the probability of incorrect bit or symbol detection due to noise and interference. By using the Q function, system designers can
determine the performance of various modulation schemes and make decisions about system parameters to achieve the desired level of error performance.
The Q function is particularly useful for analyzing modulation schemes such as quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), where the received signal is affected
by noise. By comparing the received signal's amplitude and phase with the reference symbols, the system can determine the transmitted symbol. The Q
function helps evaluate the probability of errors occurring in such systems, allowing designers to optimize the system parameters, such as the signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) or the constellation size, to achieve the desired error performance.

Questions from Previous Question Papers

1. Define BPSK. Derive the expression for error probability of BPSK
2. Explain the signal space representation for BPSK modulation. Also derive the expression for probability of error for
the BPSK
3. With necessary diagrams, explain the generation and detection of BPSK signals

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 5
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

Draw BPSK waveform for the sequence 10101101

Solution: Let nc = 2 (integral number of cycles per bit)

1.3(1) - Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

QPSK transmits 2 bits per symbol compared to 1 bit per symbol of BPSK which results in conservation of
bandwidth and low probability error. The bit combinations are 00, 01, 10 and 11. The information about the
message symbols in QPSK is contained in the carrier phase and the phase of the carrier takes on one of four
equally spaced values, such as (π/4), (3π/4), (5π/4), and (7π/4). Hence the symbols are separated through a
phase angle of 900 in 4 phases.
The transmitted symbol for the above set of values can be expressed as

2E π
si t = cos 2πfC t + 2i − 1 For 0 ≤ t ≤ T; i = 1,2,3,4 − − − −(1)
T 4
Where E = transmitted signal energy per symbol, T = symbol duration and fC = carrier frequency & fC = (nc/T).
Each possible value of the phase corresponds to a unique dibit (i.e., pair of bits).

Signal-Space Diagram of QPSK Signals

Expanding the equation (1) using trigonometric identity cos(A+B) = cosA cosB – sinA sinB

2E π 2E π
si t = cos 2πfC t cos 2i − 1 − sin 2πfC t sin 2i − 1
T 4 T 4

π 2 π 2
si t = E cos 2i − 1 . cos 2πfC t − E sin 2i − 1 . sin 2πfC t − − − 2
4 T 4 T
The signal space characterization of QPSK are tabulated. There are four message points (M=4), defined by the
two-dimensional signal vector (N=2)
From equation (2), it is can be concluded that there are two orthonormal basis functions defined by a pair of
quadrature carriers defined as
2 2
Φ1 t = cos 2πfC t For 0 ≤ t ≤ T; and Φ2 t = sin 2πfC t For 0 ≤ t ≤ T;
T T
There are 4 message points defined as
π
𝑆 E cos 2i − 1
𝑠𝑖 = 𝑖1 = 4 𝑖 = 1,2,3,4
𝑆𝑖2 π
− E sin 2i − 1
4

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 6
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

i si(t) Input Phase of Coordinates of

dibit QPSK message points
signal Si1 Si2
1 s1(t) 11 π
+ E/2 + E/2
4
2 s2(t) 01 3π − E/2 + E/2
4
3 s3(t) 00 5π − E/2 − E/2
4
4 s4(t) 10 7π + E/2 − E/2
4

1.3(2) - Generation of QPSK signal

The input binary sequence is applied to a polar NRZ-level encoder The function of the de-multiplexer is to
divide the encoder output into two separate binary waves, a1(t) which represents the odd-numbered dibits and
a2(t) represents the even-numbered dibits of the
incoming binary sequence. These two sequences
are phase modulated by a carrier of same
frequency but quadrature in phase. Since each
carrier carries two bits, hence the signaling rate
is decreased and the bandwidth required will be
half that of BPSK.
Coherent Detection of QPSK - QPSK Receiver
The QPSK receiver is structured in the form of an in-phase path and a quadrature path, working in parallel. The
receiver consists of pair of correlators, which have a
common input x(t). The two correlators are supplied
with a pair of locally generated Orthonormal basis
functions Φ1(t) and Φ2(t)(for synchronization). The
correlator outputs denoted by x1 and x2 respectively are
compared with a zero-threshold.
For the in-phase channel
If (x1 > 0), a decision is made in favor of symbol 1
If (x1 < 0), a decision is made in favor of symbol 0.
Similar for the quadrature channel,
If (x2 > 0), a decision is made in favor of symbol 1 .

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 7
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

If (x2 < 0), a decision is made in favor of symbol 0.

The Multiplexer combines the two binary sequences to produce an estimate of the original binary stream.
1.3(4) - Probability of Error in QPSK
The message points corresponding to signals s1, s2, s3 and s4 are located symmetrically in the two dimensional signal
space as shown above and computing the probability of error for one message point is same for other three points.
Consider the symbol s4(t) is transmitted and the received symbol being x(t) and is given by
x(t) = s4(t) + w(t) 0 t T
The samples x1 and x2 of the correlator outputs are computed as follows Where
𝑇 𝑇 S41 = S42 = E/2
𝑥1 = 𝑥1 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = (𝑠4 𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑡 )∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0
𝑇 𝑇
E
𝑥1 = 𝑠4 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑆41 + 𝑤1 = + 𝑤1
0 0 2
𝑇 𝑇
𝑥2 = 𝑥2 𝑡 ∅2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [𝑠4 𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑡 ]∅2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0
𝑇 𝑇
E
𝑥2 = 𝑠4 𝑡 ∅2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑡 ∅2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑆42 + 𝑤2 = + 𝑤2
0 0 2
x1(t) and x2(t) are the sample functions of the Gaussian random variable X1 and X2 with mean value = E/2
and W1 and W2 are the random variables corresponding sample functions w1 and w2 with variance (No/2).
When signal s4(t) is transmitted, the received signal point lies in the decision region Z4 and the required
condition is that if x1 > 0 and x2 > 0 which leads to the correct decision.
The conditional PDF is given by
1 (𝑥1 − 𝜇𝑥1 )2
𝑓𝑋1 𝑥1 |𝑠4 (𝑡 ) = exp −
2𝜋𝜎𝑥1 2 2𝜎𝑥1 2
2
1 (𝑥1 − E/2)2 1 𝑥1 − E/2
𝑓𝑋1 𝑥1 |𝑠4 (𝑡 ) = exp − = exp − − − − (𝐴)
𝑁 𝑁 𝜋𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜
2𝜋 2𝑜 2 2𝑜

1 (𝑥2 − 𝜇𝑥1 )2
𝑓𝑋2 𝑥2 |𝑠4 (𝑡 ) = exp −
2𝜋𝜎𝑥2 2 2𝜎𝑥2 2
2
1 (𝑥2 − E/2)2 1 𝑥2 − E/2
𝑓𝑋2 𝑥2 |𝑠4 (𝑡 ) = exp − = exp − − − − (𝐴)
𝑁 𝑁 𝜋𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜
2𝜋 2𝑜 2 2𝑜

The probability of correct decision PC is given by the product of the conditional probabilities of the events
x1 > 0 and x2 > 0 provided signal s4(t) is transmitted. In the region z4 : 0  x1   and 0  x1  
∞ ∞
𝑃𝐶 = 𝑓𝑋1 𝑥1 |𝑠4 (𝑡 𝑑𝑥1 𝑓𝑋2 𝑥2 |𝑠4 (𝑡 𝑑𝑥2
0 0
E E
𝑥1 − 2 𝑥2 − 2 E
Put 𝑧 = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥1 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑑𝑧; 𝑑𝑥2 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑑𝑧 The limits are modified into 𝑧=− to ∞
𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜 2𝑁𝑜

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 8
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

2 2
E E
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 −
− 2 − 2
∞
1 𝑁𝑜 ∞ 1 𝑁𝑜
𝑃𝐶 = e 𝑑 𝑥1 e 𝑑𝑥2
0 𝜋𝑁𝑜 0 𝜋𝑁𝑜
2
∞ ∞ ∞
1 2 1 2 1 2
𝑃𝐶 = e−z 𝑁𝑜 𝑑𝑧 e−z 𝑁𝑜 𝑑𝑧 = e−z 𝑑𝑧 − − − − − − 𝐶
−
E
2𝑁𝑜
𝜋𝑁𝑜 −
E
2𝑁𝑜
𝜋𝑁𝑜 𝜋 −
E
2𝑁𝑜

1 ∞ −u 2 1
Using the definition of comp. error function e 𝑑𝑢 = 1 − 2 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 u
𝜋 −u

∞
1 2 1 E
e−z 𝑑𝑧 = 1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 − −(D)
𝜋 −
E 2 2𝑁𝑜
2𝑁𝑜

2 2
∞
1 2 1 E
𝑃𝐶 = e−z 𝑑𝑧 = 1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
𝜋 −
E 2 2𝑁𝑜
2𝑁𝑜

E 1 E
𝑃𝐶 = 1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 + 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 2
2𝑁𝑜 4 2𝑁𝑜

The average probability of symbol error Pe = 1 – PC

E 1 E
𝑃𝑒 = 1 − 1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 + 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 2
2𝑁𝑜 4 2𝑁𝑜

E 1 E
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 2
2𝑁𝑜 4 2𝑁𝑜

E
In the region z4; the term ≫ 1, the second term can be ignored and also in QPSK two bits are transmitted
2𝑁𝑜
at a time, E = 2Eb, hence the expression modifies into

𝐸𝑏 2𝐸𝑏 1 x
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 = 2Q 𝑄 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜 2 2

Questions from Previous Question Papers

1. Describe the QPSK signal with its signal space characterization. With a neat block diagram, explain the generation
and detection of QPSK signals
2. With a neat block diagram QPSK transmitter and receiver, explain the generation and detection of QPSK signals
3. With a neat block diagram, explain the generation and coherent detection of QPSK signals.
4. Given input sequence 1100100001. Sketch the waveforms of the inphase and quadrature components of a
modulated wave and next the QPSK signal.
5. Draw the QPSK wave for the sequence 01101000 showing the inphase and quadrature components.
4. Sketch the QPSK waveform for the sequence 01101000

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 9
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

Draw the QPSK waveform for the binary sequence 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0

Steps
(1) Input the binary sequence (2) Separate it into odd and even bit sequences (3) Represent the sequences using
Polar NRZ coding (4) Odd sequences are modulated by Si1cos(2πfct) resulting in-phase components (5) Even
sequences are modulated by Si2 sin(2πfct) resulting quadrature components. (6) Add these modulated signals to
generate QPSK signal.

Given input binary sequence

Solution- The given sequence {0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 } is split into

Odd sequence as bo = {0 1 1 0 } and Even sequence as be = {1 0 0 0 }

1.4 - M-ary PSK

In order to increase the capacity of channel by using more symbols and bits, the concept of M-ary PSK is
introduced. M-ary PSK is a special case of PSK where the phase of the carrier takes on one of M possible
𝜋
values. 𝜃𝑖 = 2 𝑖 − 1 𝑀 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖 = 1, 2, … 𝑀
During each signaling interval of duration T, one of the M possible signals
2E 2π
si t = cos 2πfC t + (i − 1) where i = 1, 2, 3 … M
T M
is sent, where E is the signal energy per symbol. The carrier frequency fc = (nc/T) for some fixed integer nc.
Each si(t) may be expanded in terms of the same two basis functions Φ1(t) and Φ2(t); the signal constellation of
M-ary PSK is, therefore two-dimensional. The M message points are equally spaced on a circle of radius E
and center at the origin. Figure-1 shows the constellation diagram of 8-ary PSK system where N = 3 and the
number of message points M = 2N = 23 = 8

The decision boundaries are shown as dashed lines. The signal-space diagram is circularly symmetric. The
average probability of symbol error is calculated by the application of union bound as shown in fig-2 and using
the relation
This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 10
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

dmin = minki dik for all i and k.

Where the minimum distance dmin is the smallest Euclidean distance between any two transmitted signal points
in the constellation.

Suppose that the transmitted signal corresponds to the message point m1, the two message points on either side
of m1 are m2 and m8 and these message points are the potential candidates for being mistaken for m1 due the
channel noise. The Euclidean distance for each of these points from m1 is
𝜋
𝑑12 = 𝑑18 = 2 𝐸 sin
𝑀
The average probability of symbol error for coherent M-ary PSK system is given by

2𝐸 𝜋
𝑃𝑒 ≅ 2𝑄 sin 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑡 𝑀 ≥ 4
𝑁𝑜 𝑀

1.5(1) - Bandwidth requirements for different PSK schemes

In general for M – ary PSK system, the bandwidth is given by
2 2 2 2R
BW = NT = N R b Also M = 2N or N = Log2M BW = T = Log bM
b b Log 2 M 2

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 11
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

1.5(2) - Bandwidth efficiency of M-ary PSK systems

Bandwidth efficiency of a M-ary PSK signal is the ratio of bit rate to the bandwidth of the system.

Bit rate Rb Log 2 M M 2 4 8 16 32 64

Bandwidth efficiency ρ = = =
BW 2R b 2
Log 2 M  (bits/Hz) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Observations – (i) As the number of states M increases, the BW-efficiency  also increases at the expense of
error performance. (ii) As M increases, the BW decreases which results data rate increase.
To ensure no degradation in error performance, increase (Eb/No) to compensate for the increase in M
1.6 - M-ary QAM Systems
QAM is a hybrid form of modulation in that the carrier experiences amplitude as well as phase modulation. The
M – ary QAM is the two dimensional representation of M-ary PAM and uses two orthogonal passband basis
functions defined as
2 2
Φ1(t) = cos(2πfCt) 0tT and Φ2(t) = sin(2πfCt) 0tT
𝑇 𝑇
Let dmin denote the minimum distance between any two message points in the QAM constellation. Then, the
a i d min b i d min
projections of the ith message point on the Φ1and Φ2 -axes are respectively defined by and ,
2 2
where i = 1, 2, , M.
With the separation between two message points in the signal-space diagram being proportional to the square
d min
root of energy, = E0
2
Where E0 is the energy of the message signal with the lowest amplitude.
The transmitted M-ary QAM signal for symbol k can be defined in terms of E0:
2E 0 2E 0
sk(t) = ak cos(2πfCt) + bk sin(2πfCt) 0  t  T; k = 0, +1, +2,…
𝑇 𝑇

The signal sk(t) involves two phase quadrature carriers, each one of which is modulated by a set of discrete
amplitudes; hence the terminology “Quadrature Amplitude Modulation”.
1.6(1) - QAM Square Constellations
With an even number of bits per symbol, an M-ary QAM square constellation can always be viewed as the
Cartesian product of a one-dimensional L-ary PAM constellation with itself where L = M.
first coordinate in each such pair being taken from the first set involved in the product and the second
coordinate taken from the second set in the product. Thus, the ordered pairs of coordinates naturally form a
square matrix.
16 –ary QAM – 2 amplitudes × 8 Phases.
(i) To construct a 16 – ary QAM, consider two one dimensional 4 – ary PAM signal constellations in which
one is vertically oriented along Φ2 axis and other one oriented horizontally along Φ1 axis.
(ii) The same binary sequence is used for both 4 – ary PAM constellation
(iii) The gray encoding rule is applied
(iv) Move from one quadrant to next quadrant in counter clock wise direction.

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 12
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

The final step is to piece together these four constituent 4-ary PAM constellations to construct the 4-ary QAM
constellations. It is important note that all the code words obey the Gray encoding rule, not only within each
quadrant but also as we move from one quadrant to the next.
Figure below shows the signal constellation diagram of QAM for M = 1

1.7 - Comparison between QAM and M-ary PSK systems

Parameter QAM (16-QAM) M-ary PSK (16-ary PSK)
1 Bandwidth Efficiency Good Good
2 Constellation diagram Constellation diagram shows both Constellation diagrams represents only
amplitude and phase change phase change and amplitude is constant
since constellation diagram is circular.
3 Noise Immunity Better than M-ary QAM Less than QAM
4 Transmitted power For the same range and noise immunity, For the same range and noise immunity,,
transmitting power less transmitting power higher than QAM
5 Bits/symbol Same Same
6 Operating frequency Not suitable for extremely high Suitable even in extremely high
frequencies (GHz) as the frequencies (GHz) and the implementation
implementation is difficult due to phase is easy due to only phase and the
and amplitude changes amplitude is constant
7 Cost of implementation Less High

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 13
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

1.8 - Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK) Techniques Using Coherent Detection

M-ary PSK and M-ary QAM are examples of linear modulation. FSK is a nonlinear method of modulation uses
coherent detection.
1.8(1) - Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)
In binary FSK, symbols 1 and 0 are distinguished from each other by transmitting one of two sinusoidal waves
that differ in frequency by a fixed amount and are described as

2Eb
s1 t = cos 2πf1 t 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb − − − For symbol 1
Tb

2E b
s2 t = cos 2πf2 t 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb − − − For symbol 0
Tb

The corresponding two basis functions Φ1(t) and Φ2(t) are defined as
2 2
∅1 t = cos 2πf1 t and ∅2 t = cos 2πf2 t
Tb Tb

Hence the signal s(t) can be expressed in-terms of basis functions as

s1 t = Eb ∅1 t 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb − − − For symbol 1
s t =
s2 t = E b ∅2 t 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb − − − For symbol 0

The coefficients Sij for i = 1,2 and j = 1,2 are defined as

Tb
Sij = 0
si t ∅j (t) dt
The coefficients of the signal vectors s1 and s2 are given by
S S 0
s1 = 11 = Eb and s2 = 21 =
S12 0 S12 Eb
BFSK is characterized by a signal space diagram of two dimensional
(N=2) with two message
points (m = 2) defined by the vectors s1 and s2. The Euclidean
distance ||s1 – s2|| = 2Eb
1.8(2) - Generation of Binary FSK signals ( BFSK Transmitter)
The transmitter consists of two components:
1. On–off level encoder - the output of which is a constant amplitude of Eb in response to input symbol 1 and
zero in response to input symbol 0.
2. Pair of oscillators, whose frequencies f1 and f2
differ by an integer multiple of the bit rate 1/Tb.
The lower oscillator with frequency f2 is
preceded by an inverter.
When in a signaling interval, the input symbol is
1, the upper oscillator with frequency f1 is
switched on and signal s1(t) is transmitted, while
the lower oscillator is switched off.
When the input symbol is 0, the upper oscillator

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 14
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

is switched off, while the lower oscillator is switched on and signal s2(t) with frequency f2 is transmitted. With
phase continuity as a requirement, the two oscillators are synchronized with each other.
BFSK Coherent Receiver / Detector
The BFSK detector consists of two correlators with a common input, which are supplied with locally generated
coherent reference signals Φ1(t) and Φ2(t). The
correlator outputs are then subtracted, one
from the other; the resulting difference y is
then compared with a threshold of zero.
If y > 0, the receiver decides in favor of 1.
If y < 0, the receiver decides in favor of 0.
If y = 0, the receiver makes a random guess in
favor of 1 or 0.
1.8(3) - Error Probability of Binary FSK
Let x(t) be the received binary FSK signal and
given by x(t) = s(t) + w(t)
s1 t + w(t) − − − For symbol 1
x t = where w(t) is AWGN with mean = 0 and variance = (NO/2)
s2 t + wt) − − − For symbol 0
Consider the symbol 0 is transmitted and the received symbol being x(t) and is given by
x(t) = s2(t) + w(t)
The output of the top correlator is
𝑇𝑏 𝑇 𝑇𝑏 𝑇
𝑥1 = 0
𝑥 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
(𝑠2 𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑡 )∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑠2 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 0
𝑤 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where
𝑥1 = 𝑆21 + 𝑤1 = 0 + 𝑤1 S21 = 0
Mean value of x1 is given by µx1 = E{x1] = E[w1] = 0
Variance of x1 is given by x12 = Var[x1] = Var[S21 + w1] = 0 + Var(w1) = (No/2)
The output of the bottom Correlator is given by
𝑇𝑏 𝑇 𝑇𝑏 𝑇
𝑥2 = 𝑥 𝑡 ∅2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = (𝑠2 𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑡 )∅2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠2 𝑡 ∅2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑤 𝑡 ∅2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0 0 0
𝑥2 = 𝑆22 + 𝑤2 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝑤2

Mean value of x2 is given by µx2 = E{x2] = E[ 𝐸𝑏 + 𝑤2 ] = 𝐸𝑏 + 0 = 𝐸𝑏

Variance of x2 is given by x22 = Var[x2] = Var[ 𝐸𝑏 + 𝑤2 ] = 0 + (No/2) =(No/2)

Let Y be the new Gaussian random variable whose sample function is y = x1 – x2
Mean µy = E[Y] = E[x1] – E[x2] Variance of Random variable Y is
independent of which symbol is
µy = 0 − 𝐸𝑏 = − 𝐸𝑏 transmitted and x1 and x2 are
statistically independent
Variance y2 = Var[Y] = Var[x1] + Var[x2] = (No/2) + (No/2) = NO

The conditional PDF when symbol 0 transmitted is given by

1 (𝑦 − 𝜇𝑦 )2
𝑓𝑌 (𝑦|0) = exp −
2𝜋𝜎𝑦 2 2𝜎𝑦 2

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 15
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

2
1 𝑦 + Eb
𝑓𝑌 (𝑦|0) = exp − − − − (𝐴)
2𝜋 𝑁𝑜 2𝑁𝑜
Let Pe(0) denotes the conditional probability of deciding in favour of symbol 1 when symbol 0 is transmitted.
Hence in region Z1 : 0  x  
2
𝑦+ Eb 𝑦+ Eb
∞ ∞ 1 − Put 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑁𝑜 𝑑𝑧
𝑃𝑒 0 = 0 𝑌
𝑓 𝑦|0 𝑑𝑦 = 0 2𝜋 𝑁𝑜
e 2𝑁 𝑜
𝑑𝑦 2𝑁𝑜
∞ ∞
The limits are modified into
1 −𝑧 2
1 2
𝑃𝑒 0 = e 2𝑁𝑜 𝑑𝑧 = e− 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 Eb
Eb 2𝜋𝑁𝑜 𝜋 Eb 𝑧= to ∞
2𝑁𝑜 2𝑁𝑜 2𝑁𝑜

Using the defintion of complementary error function

∞
2 2
erfc u = e−u 𝑑𝑢
𝜋 u

1 Eb
𝑃𝑒 (0) = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 2𝑁𝑜
Similarly, if P1(0) denotes the conditional probability of deciding in favour of symbol 0 when symbol 1 is
transmitted. Hence in region Z2 : 0  x  
1 Eb
𝑃𝑒 (1) = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 2𝑁𝑜
If symbol 0 and 1 are equiprobable, then P(0) = P(1) = 0.5
The average probability error Pe = P(0) Pe(0) + P(1) Pe(1)

1 1 Eb 1 1 Eb 1 Eb
𝑃𝑒 = 2 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 +2 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 = 2 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 1 x
2 2𝑁𝑜 2 2𝑁𝑜 2𝑁𝑜 𝑄 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑄 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 2
1 Eb Eb
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 =Q
2 2𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜

Questions from Previous Question Papers

1. Derive an expression for the probability of error of binary frequency shift keying technique. Also draw the block
diagram of BFSK transmitter and Coherent receiver.
2. Derive an expression for error probability of BFSK
3. Obtain an expression for the probability of symbol error of coherent binary FSK.
4. Explain the generation and coherent detection of BFSK system.

1.9 - Non Coherent Orthogonal Modulation Techniques

Consider a binary signaling scheme that involves the use of two orthogonal signals s1(t) and s2(t), which have
equal energy. During the signaling interval 0 ≤ t ≤ T, where T may be different from the bit duration T b, one of
these two signals is sent over an imperfect channel that shifts the carrier phase by an unknown amount.
Let g1(t) and g2(t) denote the phase-shifted versions of s1(t) and s2(t) that result from this transmission,
respectively. It is assumed that the signals g1(t) and g2(t) remain orthogonal and have the same energy E,

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 16
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

regardless of the unknown carrier phase and the signaling scheme is referred to as noncoherent orthogonal
modulation.
In addition to carrier-phase uncertainty, the channel also introduces noise w(t) of zero mean and power spectral
density N0/2, resulting in the received signal.
1.9(1) - Non Coherent Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)
Figure shows the scheme of generation of BFSK signal. The input binary data is in unipolar NRZ format, is
applied to the multiplier- 1 along with carrier signal Φ1(t) so that
s1(t) = m(t) Φ1(t).
The input m(t), is applied to the multiplier- 2 through an inverter along with carrier signal Φ2(t) so that
s2(t) = m(t) Φ2(t)
2 2
Where ∅1 t = cos 2πf1 t and ∅2 t = cos 2πf2 t and m(t) = Eb
Tb Tb

 When symbol 1 is transmitted, output is from the upper path s1(t) and no output from the lower path s2(t)=0.
Thus frequency f1 is transmitted for symbol 1.
 When symbol 0 is transmitted, output is from the lower path s2(t) and no output from the upper path s1(t)=0.
Thus frequency f2 is transmitted for symbol 0.
Frequency f1 < f2 is chosen and the phase of FSK remains constant. Hence FSK is also known as continuous
phase FSK.

Non-Coherent BFSK Detection

The detector consists of pair of matched filters
followed by an envelope detectors. The filter in the
upper path of the receiver is matched to
cos 2πf1 t and the filter in the lower path is
matched to cos 2πf2 t for the signalling interval
0  t  Tb
The resulting envelope detector outputs are sampled
at t = Tb and their values are compared.
The receiver decides in favor of symbol 1 if l1 > l2
and in favor of symbol 0 if l1 < l2.
If l1 = l2, the receiver simply guesses randomly in favor of symbol 1 or 0.
The non-coherent BFSK is a special case of non-coherent orthogonal modulation with T=Tb and E = Eb where
Eb is the energy per bit and the probability of error is given by
1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 = exp −
2 𝑁0

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 17
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

1.9(2) - Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)

DPSK is the “non-coherent” version of binary PSK. The distinguishing feature of DPSK is that it eliminates the
need for synchronizing the receiver to the transmitter by combining two basic operations at the transmitter:
(i) differential encoding of the input binary sequence and (ii) PSK of the encoded sequence. Hence the name
DPSK.
Differential encoding starts with an arbitrary first bit, serving as the reference bit; to this end, symbol 1 is used
as the reference bit. Generation of the differentially encoded sequence then proceeds in accordance with a two-
part encoding rule as follows:
1. If the new bit at the transmitter input is 1, leave the differentially encoded symbol unchanged with respect to
the current bit.
2. If, on the other hand, the input bit is 0, change the differentially encoded symbol with respect to the current
bit.
The differentially encoded sequence, denoted by {dk}, is used to shift the sinusoidal carrier phase by zero and
180o, representing symbols 1 and 0, respectively. Thus, in terms of phase-shifts, the resulting DPSK signal
follows the two-part rule:
1. To send symbol 1, the phase of the DPSK signal remains unchanged.
2. To send symbol 0, the phase of the DPSK signal is shifted by 180°.
DPSK encoded bit dk = bk XNOR dk – 1 = 𝑏𝑘 𝑑𝑘−1 + 𝑏𝑘 𝑑𝑘−1 where bk is the input sequence
Generation of DPSK Signal
The transmitter consists of two functional blocks:
• Logic network and one-bit delay (storage) element, which are interconnected so as to convert the raw input
binary sequence {bk} into the differentially encoded sequence {dk}.
• Binary PSK modulator, the output of which is the desired DPSK signal.

Optimum Receiver for the Detection of DPSK

In the use of DPSK, the carrier phase  is unknown, which complicates the
received signal x(t). To deal with the unknown phase  in the detection
of the DPSK signal, the receiver is equipped with an in-phase and a
quadrature paths. From the signal-space diagram, the received signal
points over the two-bit interval 0  t  2Tb are defined by

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 18
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

(Acos, Asin  ) and (–Acos , –Asin ), where A denotes the carrier amplitude. The received signal x(t) is
applied to the correlators of inphase and quadrature paths.

For the two-bit interval 0  t  2Tb, the receiver measures the coordinates , first, at time t = Tb corresponding
output XO and then measures at time t = 2Tb the corresponding output is X1.

Compute the inner product of Vectors X1 and X2

XI1
XOT X1 = [XI0 XQ0] X = XI0 XI1 + XQ0 XQ1
Q1
If the inner product of vectors X0 and X1 are positive, the receiver decides in favour of symbol 1; otherwise
symbol 0
XOT X1 > 0  Symbol 1 XOT X1 < 0  Symbol 0

Illustration of DPSK
Consider the input binary sequence, denoted ,bk to be 10010011, which is used to derive the generation of a
DPSK signal. The differentially encoded process starts with the reference bit 1. Let d k denote the differentially
encoded sequence starting in this manner and dk – 1 denote its delayed version by one bit. The complement of
the modulo-2 sum of bk and dk – 1 defines the desired dk , as illustrated below.

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 19
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

Advantages of DPSK
1. Non Coherent detection is possible
2. DPSK does not need carrier at the receiver,hence the complicated circuitry for generation of local
carrier is avoided.
3. Low cost and less circuit complexity.
4. Bandwidth requirement is half of BPSK
Limitations of DPSK
1. High probability of error compared to BPSK.
2. For given value of (Eb/No), DPSK consumes more power compared to BPSK.
3. Error propagation – Since DPSK uses two successive bits for its reception, Error in the first bit creates
error in the second bit and error propagation takes place.4
4. Noise interference is more in DPSK

Comparison of Digital modulation Schemes

Questions from previous question papers

1) With a neat diagram, explain the non-coherent detection of binary frequency shift keying technique. (4M0
2) With a neat diagram and expressions, explain binary FSK generation and non-coherent detection scheme. (6M)
3) Explain the generation and optimum detection of DPSK signals with neat block diagrams.(8M)
4) For the binary sequence 10010011, illustrate the operation of DPSK (2M)
5) The binary sequence 1100100010 is applied to the DPSK transmitter. (i) Sketch the resulting waveform at the transmitter
output (ii) Applying this waveform o the DPSK receiver, show that in the absence of noise, the original binary sequence is
reconstructed at the receiver. (6M)

Problem 1– Binary data are transmitted over a microwave link at the rate of 106 bits/sec and the PSD of
the noise at the receiver input is 10 –10 W/Hz. Find the average carrier power required to maintain an
average probability of error Pe  10 –4 for (i) binary PSK system (ii) DPSK system.
Given erfc(2.63) = 2×10 –4 ; Q(3.7) = 10 –4
Solution: Given Rb = 106 bits/sec; PSD (NO/2) = 10 –10 W/Hz

1 Eb 2E b
Pe = 2 erfc =Q = 10−4 − − − − − 1 and 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑄 3.7 = 10−4 − − − −(2)
No No

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 20
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

2𝐸𝑏 No
From equations (1) and (2) = 3.7 𝑜𝑟 Eb = 3.72 = 13.69 10−10 = 1.369 nJ
𝑁𝑜 2
Eb
Average carrier power P = = Eb R b = 13.69 × 10−10 × 106 = 1.369 mW
Tb
(ii) DPSK system
1 − Eb
Pe = 10−4 = e No or Eb = 3.698No = 3.698 × 2 × 10−10 = 0.7396 nJ
2
Eb
Average carrier power P = = Eb R b = 0.7396 × 10−9 × 106 = 0.7396 mW
Tb
Problem 2– Binary data are transmitted over a microwave link at the rate of 106 bits/sec, assuming the
channel noise is AWGN with zero mean and PSD of the noise at the receiver input is 10 –10 W/Hz. Find
the average carrier power required to maintain an average probability of error Pe  10 –4 for a coherent
binary PSK system. Given erfc(2.8) = 2×10 –4
Solution: Given Rb = 106 bits/sec; PSD (NO/2) = 10 –10 W/Hz
1 Eb
Pe = 2 erfc = 10−4 − − − − − 1 and 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 2.8 = 2 × 10−4 − − − −(2)
No

𝐸𝑏
From equations (1) and (2) = 2.8
𝑁𝑜
No
Eb = 2.82 No = 2 × 2.82 × = 2 × 7.84 × 10−10 = 1.568 nJ
2
Eb
Average carrier power P = = Eb R b = 1.568 × 10−10 × 106 = 1.568 mW
Tb
Problem3 - A binary data is transmitted over a microwave link at the rate of 106 bits/sec and the PSD of
noise at the receiver is 10–10 W/Hz. Find the average carrier power required to maintain an average
probability of error Pe  10–4 for coherent FSK. What is the required channel bandwidth?
Given erf(2.6) = 0.9998

Solution: Given Rb = (1/Tb) = 106 bits/sec; PSD of noise (NO/2) = 10 –10 W/Hz or NO = 2 × 10 –10
1 Eb
Pe(FSK ) = 2 erfc = 10−4
2N o

Given erf(u) is given and relate it to erfc(u) using the relation erf(u) = 1 – erfc(u)
Eb Eb
erfc = 2 × 10−4 or 1 − erfc = 1 − 2 × 10−4 = 0.9998
2N o 2N o

Eb
erf = 0.9998 --------(A) and erf(2.6) = 0.9998 ---------(B)
2N o

Eb Eb
From (A) and (B) = 2.6 or = 2 × 2.62 = 13.52
2N o No

Eb = 13.52 No = 13.52×2 × 10 –10 = 2.704 × 10 –9 J

Average Power required Pav = (Eb/Tb) = (2.704 × 10 –9 ×10 6) = 2.704 mW
Channel bandwidth  Bit rate = 106 Hz
Problem 4: Assume that you are required to transmit fb = 90 Mbps in the authorized bandwidth of
20 MHz, which modulation technique would you consider? Explain why?
Solution – For this transmission, M-ary PSK is used.
This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 21
Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor ravishankarmn@[Link]

Given BW = 20 MHz, fb = 90Mbps or Tb = (1/fb)

2 2f b
The required condition for transmission is that BW ≤ ==> 20 × 106 =
NT b N
6 2×90×10 6 N 9
20 × 10 = or N = 9 bits Hence M = 2 = 2 = 512
N
A 512–ary PSK is used to transmit the data at the rate of 90 Mbps in the specified bandwidth 20 MHz.

Problem 5– In the digital CW communication system. The bit rate of NRZ data stream is 1Mbps and the
carrier frequency is 100MHz. Find the symbol rate of transmission and bandwidth requirement of the
channel for (i) BPSK (ii) QPSK (iii) 16–ary PSK systems
Solution – Given fb = 1 Mbps; fC = 100 MHz
2
(i) BPSK system BW ≤ T = 2fb = 2 1Mbps = 2 MHz
b
BPSK uses one bit for one symbol, hence Ts = (1Tb) = (1/fb )= 1 µsec
Symbol rate = (1/Ts) = 1Mbps
1
(ii) QPSK system BW ≤ T = fb = 1Mbps = 1 MHz
b
QPSK uses two bits for one symbol, hence Ts = (2Tb) =(2/ fb) = 2 µsec
Symbol rate = (1/Ts) = 0.5 Mbps
1 f
(iii) 16-ary PSK system BW ≤ 2T = 2b = 0.5Mbps = 500 kHz
b
16-ary PSK uses 4 bits for one symbol, hence Ts = (4Tb) =(4/ fb) = 4 µsec
Symbol rate = (1/Ts) = 0.25 Mbps
Problem 6 - The binary sequence 1100100010 is applied to the DPSK transmitter.
(i) Sketch the resulting waveform at the transmitter output
(ii) Applying this waveform o the DPSK receiver, show that in the absence of noise, the original binary
sequence is reconstructed at the receiver.

Binary data bk Ref 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

Differential encoded data 1*
dk 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Phase of dk 0 0 π 0 0 π 0 π π 0
Shifted diff. encoded data
dk – 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
Phase of dk – 1 0 0 0 π 0 0 π 0 π π
dk = [bk dk – 1] 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Phase comparison + + - - + - - - + -
between dk and dk – 1
Detected sequence 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Problem 7 - A binary data {bk}={010010011} is to be transmitted using DPSK. Choose d1=0 and
determine: i. The differential encoded sequence {d k} and phase of the transmitted DPSK signal.
ii. Polarity of the integrator output at t=Tb of the DPSK receiver. iii. Decision rule and detected binary
sequence.
Binary data bk Ref 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
Differential encoded data dk 0* 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
Phase of dk 0 0 π 0 0 π 0 0 0
Shifted diff. encoded data dk – 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
Phase of dk – 1 π 0 0 π 0 0 π 0 0
dk = [bk dk – 1] 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
Phase comparison between dk and dk – 1 - + - - + - - + +
(Polarity of the integrator output at t = Tb)
Decision rule for detected sequence If 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
l>0 1; if l<0 0

This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 22