Chapter— 8

How do Organisms Reproduce?

• Reproduction It is the
process by which living organism produce new
individuals similar to themselves.
Necessity of Reproduction
It is essential for survival of speciCZ.
• Heredity- It is the transmission
of character or traits (physical features like
hoo crfrom parents to c, Obbprings.
The unit of heredity is DNA. Therefore creation of
DNA copy is essential for
hereditary information to be transferred. Copying of DNA is the main event
of reproduction.
Unit of DNA is gene.
Copying of DNA occurs with the help of a Bio-chemical process but no
biochemical reaction is absolutely reliable. As a result, DNA copies
generated are similar but not absolutely identical to that of parents.
These variations can be drastic sometimes so that the new DNA copy
doesn't even work but at the same time variation is essential for the
maintenance of stability of a particular species.
Ex— It there were a population of bacteria living in temperate water and if
the temperature of water rises, then most of the bacteria would die but
some will survive. They survive because of the variation. Thus variation is
useful for the survival.

Type of the Reproduction:

There are two type of reproduction
• Asexual reproduction:. (Sexual reproduction involves
two parents and formation of gametes where as aÆexualreproduction
involves one parent only and it is without gamete production.
A SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
@ In unicellular organisms

Al Binary fission
 It occurs in (Protozoa) Amoeba, Leishmania (Causative
CMU,
agent of kala - azar),
Process:

First of all nuclear division occurs.

Then cytoplasmic division occurs.

Thus the parent amoeba divides into two daughter amoeba.

Binary fission occurs in specific orientation in Leishmania.

• Multiple Fission . It occurs in Plasmodium (Malarial parasite)

• Parent cettdivides into many daughter cells simultonerusly. SQL'rrLltamt

Budding: It occurs in yeast (unicellular fungi) Bud appears

outside the cell wall.

Nucleg$of the parent cell divides.

Daughter nucleus moves to the bud.

Bud detaches off and forms up a daughter yeast or cell

@ In multicellular organisns

B: Budding: Occurs in Hydra.

Regenerative cell form up the bud.

Bud develops as an outgrowth.

Bud enlarges and develops tentacles.

Detachedfrom plant body.

B2Spore formation: It ocuers in rhizopus (bread mekLd , MUcor,

etc.
 Rhizopus develops on moist bread.
a
It possesses on aerial/Gyphac called geeeteee-called sporangiophores and
tiny blob on a stick tructure called sporangia. It contains spores.

Spores arc covered by thick Erads which protect them.V/henthey come in

contact with anothcr moist surface.

They germinate undcr suitable conditions.

B, Fragmentation. It occurs in spirogyra filament. Organisondergoes

maturation. [1
Splits into two.

Each part develops into a new organism.

Fragmentation is not possible in all multicellular organinsms because

different type of cells with specialized function are there in all multicellular
organisms,So fragmentation can't generate them all.

Regeration. It occurs in and Planaria. The process of getting back

a full organism from its cut parts is cattedregeneration.

Organism is cut.
Cut part has specialized cells.

These cells proliferate, increase in number.

Get distinguished into various types.

• Note: Regeneration cannot be equated reproducftion because most

organisms cannot depend on being cut for reproduction.

Bs. Vegetative Propagation. It's of two types.

(1) Natural methods of vegetative propagation.

Plant part can multiply naturally to give rise to a new plant. It can take
place by • & a stem. Eg —Grass, moneyplant etc. or
 leaf can give rise to a
By leaves rx Bryophyllum, adventitious buds of a
new plant,
the root.
Naturally a plant can a'«o propagato through bud; of
tx Guava,
(2) Artificial Methods
The process of growing many plants from one plant by man
methods is called artificial propagation.
It is of these types.
By cutting: Ex Rose, grapes, etc,
• Layering: branch of the plant is pulled towards the ground.
Part of it is covcrccftvith soil.
Covered part dcvc ps root.
Thereafter, the brt?Ch is cut off.

Works as individua+plant.
Ex —Jasmine, hibiscus„ lemon etc.
two different
By grafting : It is a method in which the cut parts of
in such a way
plants, one with root and the other with shoot are joined
whose root
that the two parts can grow as a simple plant. The plant
system is taken,
system is taken is called stock and the plant whos
is called scion.
plant whereas
Stock is resistant to diseases and provides nourishment to
seeds.
scion is high —yielcfing and develop fruits, flower and
Note: stock and scion must be packed in such a way that their
from micr&ial
must come in contact and at the same time, protected
attack.
Advantages of grafting
It allows combination of characters.
plant very early.
It allows a very young stock to develop into a complete
Ex— mango, apple, peach, etc.
Advantages of vegetative production
It is cheap and rapid.
 • the formation of genetically identical plants.
• Even the seedless plant can be propagated by this method.
Ex —Rose and Jasmine.

Be Tissue cultUre: It is a technique that involves plant

propagation under artificial conditions.

Tissue or cell are rem ved from growing plant tip.

Transferred to artifici medium (supplement of soil)

Development of group of cells called as callus takes place.

Callus is then transferred to another medium for further growth and

differentiation.
Later the plants develop.
Plantets are then transferred to soil.
Advantages
• Little space requirement.
• Faster technique.
• Desease free plants can be grown.
Can be grown all the year round.

Sexual Reproduction
It involves parents. This kind of reproduction involves formation of gametes
forwared by their fusion.

Sexual reproductionallows 'YßEvariation beacause of the mix and match of the

DNA from two parents, Asexual re-production also allow-s the rate of variation
but the rate of its accumulation is slow. Ifmore variation is incorporated, in that
case the cellular apparatus can't work. DNA combining every time during the
course of sexual reproduction does not allow the doubling of chromosomes. This
is because of the —

Male Germ cell Female Germ cell

 Ire

half the no total half the no of total

Chromosomes) chromosomes)

• Progeny (with total no of chromosomes)

IN FLOWERING PLANT

Flower is the reproductive organ of the plant of an angiosperm. The essential

whorls include.

(1) Sepal —They are the green coloured whorls, leaf— like. The Group of
sepals is called calyx.
It protects the flower.
(2) Petal —They are the colored The group of petals is called corolla.
They attract the insects for pollination.
(3) Stamen or Androecium:- It is the male reproductive part of the plant.
Each stamen consist of
• Bilobed anther
• Filament
The and the filament remain connected with the help of a connective
(4) Carpel or Pistil It is the female reproductive part of the plant. It has a
swollen base, every Ovary has a
Terminal sticky part called stigma.
Female gamete called egg is produced within the ovule of the

Note: All the parts of the flower remain attached to the or

receptacle.
Unisexual and Bisexual flower
Unisexual flower consist of both, stamen and carpel. Ex —Mustard,
China rose biscus).
Process of sexual reproduction
Pollination —Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to
the stigma the carpel is called pollination. If it occurs in
 same plant, it is called self pollination. If it different plants it
is called cross- pollination.
Agency or agent for pollination is Arches (ground nut) and cross —
pollination occurs in marigold.
• Fertilization Fusion of male and female gamete is called fertilization.
Pollcn grain reaches the stigma.
Undcrgoes germin tion and forms up a pollen tube.
Pollen tube enters Into the style through the
Then enters into the ovule of the ovary through the opening called
micropyle.
Two male gametes are produced by a single pollen tube.

One male gamete fuses with The other male gamete

Female gamete. This is called uses with diploid
(n+n=2n) (2n+n=3n)

Produces the zygote Endosperm isformed

Zygote divides to form an

• Endosperm gives nutrition to the embryo.

Ovule ripens into a seed. Embryo is present inside the seed. It forms a
plant.
• Ovary ripens into a fruit.
• Since two fertilization take place in ovule it is called double fertilization.
Reproduction in Human Beings
• Puberty The age at which the reproductive organs become functional i.e.
they start producing gametes, is called puberty.
Generally, puberty is attained at the age of 13-14 in boys and 10-12 in girls.
Change that occurs in girls and boys at puberty are called secondary sexual
characters.
Changes in boys include —of voice, development of muscular
body, etc.
 Changes in girls include development of pitched voice, etc.
• Reproductive system
Male
Testis is the part of male reproductive system that produces sperms and
helps in regulating sperm production and in
the development of secondary sexual characters in males,Testes are
located outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum because sperm
production requires a temperature (20—30 c less) as compared to
normal body temperature. Ducts in the male reproductive system include
vas deferens, vas a efferentia and epididymis.

Path for sperm movement

Sperms are pr uced by testes.
Gets mixed wit the secretion from seminal vesicle and prostrate gland.
Moves through vas deferens.
Secretion makes the movement of sperm easier and also provides nutrition
to it.
Vas deferens e— speym joins the tube coming from urinary bladder.
The common tube opens into urethra i.e.a. common opening for sperm and
urine.
Sperm possesses a tail for movement towards the female gamete.
Fe møvL2 Ovaries produce female gamete or egg or the eva. Ovaries also produce
female sex hormones. The human female reproductive comprises.
(a) Pair of ovaries.
(b) Pair of fallopian tubes/oviducts
(c) Accessory reproductive organs - uterus, cervix and the vagina
One egg or one female gamete is produced every month by one of
the ovaries. This ovum moves towards the fallopian tube and waits
for the sperm.
The two fallopian tubes unite in a bag— like elastic sttücturecalled
uterus. Uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix.
• Fertilization
Fusion of male and female gametes is called fertilization.
 It takes place in fallopian tube.
The fertilized egg lhe zygote moves towards the uterus.
Gets implanted in the uterus with their lining and blood resells.

Embryo gets nutrition form the mother with the help of tissue called placenta.

Embryo mother side

Side disc-like has blood spaces
{NasVilli structure in surrounding the
Uterus Villi
• Nutrition (glucose) + 02 will move from mother to [Link]
• Waste will move from embryo to mother.
Development of embryo takes approximately months in the case of human
beings. This particular period of embryo development is called gestation
period.
The birth of a fully developed baby is called parturition . Parturition take
place by the rhythmic contraction and relaxation of uterine muscles.
Note: If the egg is not fertilized, it lives for about a day. Then it is removed
from the female reproductive track along with blood and mucous from the
uterus. This cycle takes place roughly every month and it is known as
menstruation.
Contraception Methods
Methods used to prevent birth are called contraception methods. Different
birth control methods include —
(1) Barrier method —It prevents the fertilization by not allowing sperm
to reach the egg.
(2) Chemical method - This method changes the hormonal balance of
the body so that the eggs are not formed Drugs taken orally come
under the category of this method. They can cause side effects.
(3) Intro-uterine contraceptive methods —(IUCD) Loop or copper- T is
placed in the uterus to prevent the embryo implantation. They can
cause irritation Ythe uterus.
(4) Surgical method —In males, a small portion of vas deferens is
blocked or tied, as a result of which the sperm transfer blocked.
 In females, fallopian tube is tied, as a result of which egg transfer is
blocked.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
The diseases which are spread by the sexual contact with on infected
person are called sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). These include
(1) Bacterial infections —Gonorrhealand syphilis.
(2) Viral infection —Warts and AIDS (Acquired Immune deficiency
syndrome) caused by Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
STDs can be prevented by using barrier methods.
 Diagram Related to the chapter 8

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