International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 7 (2024) 25e36

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International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture

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Original Article

Ultrasonic spot-welding of AA 6061-T6 aluminium alloy: Optimization

of process parameters, microstructural characteristics and mechanical
properties of spot joints
P. Rajalingam a, S. Rajakumar a, *, S. Kavitha b, Tushar Sonar c
a
Centre for Materials Joining and Research (CEMAJOR), Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Annamalai University, Chidambaram, 608002, Tamil
Nadu, India
b
Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Annamalai University, Chidambaram, 608002, Tamil Nadu, India
c
Department of Welding Engineering, Institution of Engineering and Technology, South Ural State University (National Research University), Chelyabinsk,
454080, Russia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The ultrasonic spot welding (USW) is used to develop the lap joints of AA 6061-T6 aluminium alloy
Received 11 March 2023 because it is difficult to spot weld using resistance spot welding (RSW) and laser beam spot welding
Received in revised form (LBSW) processes due to its high electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity and light reflectivity
14 June 2023
respectively. The main objective of this investigation is to optimize the USW parameters specifically
Accepted 19 July 2023
welding time (s), amplitude (%) and pressure (bar) for enhancing the tensile shear fracture load (TSFL)
Available online 21 July 2023
bearing capability of AA 6061-T6 aluminium alloy lap joints for automotive applications. The statistical
response surface methodology (RSM) was utilized for generating strength prediction models (SPM) and
Keywords:
AA 6061-T6 alloy
validated using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The RSM is widely used for optimizing the process pa-
Ultrasonic spot welding rameters as it provides greater information such as optimum conditions, direct effect of process pa-
Tensile shear fracture load rameters and performance prediction from limited number of experiments compared to other
Optimization optimization techniques. The response surfaces were created using RSM and analyzed. The effect of USW
parameters on macrostructure, microstructure and TSFL of USW joints was studied. From the results, it
was observed that the USW joints created using the welding amplitude of 100%, welding time of 21 s and
welding pressure of 6 bar exhibited greater TSFL capacity of 5.08 kN. The SPM accurately predicted the
TSFL of USW joints within 5% error on 95% confidence. Welding pressure disclosed major effect on TSFL of
USW joints followed by welding amplitude and time. The greater TSFL of USW joints is imputed to the
better coalescence of weld surfaces and refined microstructure.
© 2023 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This
is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
4.0/).

1. Introduction sufficient weldability [2]. The inclusion of Mg and Si makes the

annealed strength of AA 6061 alloy comparable to or slightly better
The high strength aluminium alloys such as 2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx than non-heat-treatable Al alloys and enhances the mechanical
series are widely used in automotive and aircraft industries for strength through precipitation of Mg2Si phases, as well as several
structural applications [1]. AA6061 is a precipitation-hardened complex intermetallics precipitated during artificial aging [3]. It is
aluminum (Al) alloy, containing 1.2% magnesium (Mg) and 0.81% used in automotive industries for structural body frames and other
silicon (Si) as its major alloying elements. It has high strength/ vehicle components where it has to be welded using suitable
weight ratio good mechanical properties, corrosion resistance and welding processes. The spot welding is popular in automotive in-
dustries as it is faster and cost effective compared to other welding
processes [4]. A typical car body contains more than 5000 spot
* Corresponding author. welds which are crucial to ensure its structural integrity. Hence, the
E-mail addresses: hairaju1976@[Link] (P. Rajalingam), srkcemajor@yahoo. spot welding is employed in the entire production line of auto-
com (S. Rajakumar), kaviraj_2003@[Link] (S. Kavitha), tushar.sonar77@
motive industries to be competitive with increased volume of
[Link], sonart@[Link] (T. Sonar).
Peer review under responsibility of Editorial Board of International Journal of production whilst maintaining the quality standards [5]. The spot
Lightweight Materials and Manufacture. welding is preferentially done using resistance spot welding (RSW)

[Link]
2588-8404/© 2023 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
([Link]
P. Rajalingam, S. Rajakumar, S. Kavitha et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 7 (2024) 25e36

and laser beam spot welding (LBSW) process [6]. However, there
are some other applications such as gas and liquid tight joints,
welding high electrical conductivity, high thermal conductivity and
high light reflectivity materials such as Al and copper alloys where
these methods are not suitable. This led to the development and
application of ultrasonic spot welding (USW) in automotive in-
dustries for applications such as interior panels, lithium-ion bat-
teries, engine components, electrical and electronic accessories etc
[7]. The USW can be effectively used to join high thermal and
electric conductive materials such as Al alloys for developing
stronger, visually appealing, and dimensionally precise spot welds
[8]. It satisfies the requirement of air and liquid tight joints. The
joining of thin sheets of Al alloys is possible only with spot welding
without the problems of burn through, distortion and wrappage.
Initially, AA 6061-T6 alloys were joined using fusion welding
techniques such as Metal Inert Gas (MIG) and Tungsten Inert Gas
(TIG) welding. These alloys, when subjected to fusion welding
exhibited defects such as solidification cracking, heat affected zone
(HAZ) cracking and porosity of joints [9]. To overcome these
problems, USW is employed for joining thin sheets of AA6061-T6 Al Fig. 2. Schematic of an USW machine.
alloy. The USW is a solid-state welding (SSW) technique that uses
ultrasonic vibration of high frequency to weld the two pieces actuator. A welding horn, often referred to as a sonotrode, is an
together [10]. The working mechanism of USW machine is illus- acoustical device that is created specifically to meet the needs of
trated in Fig. 1. The two thinner sheets of metal are clamped firmly the application and transfers mechanical vibrations to the work-
in lap joint configuration between sonotrode and anvil. The high piece. The transducer, booster, and horn assembly (also known as
frequency ultrasonic vibrations are created in USW that causes a the stack) are housed in the actuator, also known as the welding
frictional relative motion between two surfaces to be joined which press. Its main function is to apply force controllably and repeatedly
are held together under pressure. This relative motion causes the over the workpiece while lowering and raising the stack. Fixtures
deformation, shearing ad flattening of localized surface asperities are necessary for holding components steady and aligning them
that disperses the interfacial oxides and contaminants. The brings during welding. To provide consistent pressure between the parts
the metal to metal in contact and develops the bonding between during welding and repeatability, parts must be held in alignment
the joining surfaces [11]. The ultrasonic metal welding is quite with regard to the end of the horn. For effective ultrasonic energy
distinct from an allied ultrasonic plastic welding. The ultrasonic transmission, the fixture must also keep the components station-
vibrations in metal welding are parallel to the part surfaces, ary. Both the energy or peak-power mode (closed-loop), in which
whereas they are perpendicular to the surfaces in plastic welding. power is monitored throughout the welding cycle and ultrasonic
The ultrasonic metal welding is achieved in solid state i.e., without vibrations are stopped when a specific power level or energy level
melting and fusion of adjacent metal surfaces [12]. In ultrasonic has been reached, and the time (or open-loop) mode, in which
plastic welding, the joining is done by melting and coalescence of ultrasonic energy is applied for a specific period, are available for
adjacent plastic material [13]. The schematic of USW machine set use with ultrasonic welding machines with microprocessor-
up is shown in Fig. 2. It consists of a power supply, converter with controlled power supplies. Other welding modes that are feasible
booster attachment, horn, fixtures, and an actuator. The power with more modern equipment include welding to a fixed
supply/generator converts 50e60 Hz mains electricity into a high completed item height and welding to a predetermined displace-
frequency electrical supply that runs at 20 kHz. The converter re- ment or distance travelled by the horn [14].
ceives this electrical energy. The transducertransforms the elec- The maximal tensile shear stress of 2.92 kN in a welding time of
trical energy into the mechanical vibrations required for welding. 0.6 s was reported by Ni et al. [15] in their study of USW of Al/Ni
The booster amplifies the mechanical vibrations generated at the joints with Al2219 particle interlayer, which is greater than that
transducer's tip. The booster also provides the mounting point for without interlayer (1.74 kN) in a welding time of 0.65 s. This sug-
attaching the stack of welding (transducer/booster/horn) to the gests that the AA 2219 particle reduces welding time while

Fig. 1. Mechanism of USW process.

26
P. Rajalingam, S. Rajakumar, S. Kavitha et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 7 (2024) 25e36

simultaneously improving the tensile shear load. Feng et al. [16] energy of 1300 J, amplitude of 85% or 95%. Singh et al. [30]
successfully bonded high porosity open-cell Cu foam and 1A99 optimized the USW parameters using RSM for joining AA1050
aluminum (Al) sheet using USW under extremely low welding- alloy with C101S Cu and C101S Cu Ni coated low carbon steel and
energy circumstances. The foam copper's structure and character- found the maximum TSFL capacity of 0.6 kN and 1.02 kN for the
istics were kept as much as possible, and the joint's ideal tensile developed joints respectively. Wagner et al. [31] optimized USW
strength was around 89% of the base metal. With 70 J of welding parameters using RSM for joining AA2024 Al alloy to carbon fibre
energy, the weld interface's edge reached a peak temperature of reinforced polymer composite and found that the joints made
77.7
C. To investigate the temperature profile during the ultrasonic using optimal conditions provides the higher strength of 58 MPa.
welding process of Cu and Al plates with a thickness of 0.2 mm, Zhao et al. [32] optimized the USW parameters using artificial
Chen et al. [17] built a 3D model using finite elements. When the neural network (ANN) to join magnesium and titanium and found
welding period was 100 s, the temperature at the weld interface that clamping force extends predominant effect on joint strength
centre was 72
C. It was greater than the temperature at the edge of followed by time ad amplitude of vibrations. Satpathy et al. [33]
weld interface. The peak loads of open cell Cu foam and Al USW joined Al to brass using USW and found that the joints made using
joint were between 72% and 89% of Cu foam base metal. It showed welding pressure of 0.26 MPa, time of 0.21 s and vibration
good toughness. Al alloy and stainless steel (SS) were welded amplitude of 60 mm exhibited greater joint strength of 4.05 MPa.
together by Fujii et al. [18] using USW process. The welding energy Leon et al. [34] optimized UW parameters for joining Al to Cu
led to an increase in weld strength. The welds created with greater sheets using Taguchi method and found that the lap shear
amount of energy showed nugget pull-out failure of the Al alloy. strength was greater for the joints made using welding time of
Zhou et al. [19] used ultrasonic spot welding to effectively weld 0.4 s, pressure of 4 bar and vibration amplitude of 90%.
sheets of Al alloy with commercially pure Ti. The joint interface did The research work on USW of AA 6061-T6 alloy is not reported
not comprise any intermetallics. The peak load of the USW joints so far. The USW of AA6061-T6 alloy carries significant importance
first raised with the expansion of bonding area as welding duration in automotive sectors for joining thin sheets. The process param-
increased, then dropped because of the fatigue fracture in the Al eters significantly influence the mechanical performance and
side. When welding duration increased, the peak temperature has microstructural features of joints. This necessitates the process
increased. Zhang et al. [20] evaluated the hardness, lap shear parameter optimization and understanding the direct effect of
strength (LSS), and fracture energy of AA2139-TiAl6V4 spot joints welding parameters on microstructure and strength performance
created using USW. The joints showed the highest peak load of of AA 6061-T6 alloy joints for its feasibility in practical applications.
5.3 kN and maximum fracture energy of 3.7 kN/mm. Failure man- Many researchers have contributed their research efforts in
ifested as a rupture at the weld interface. Because brittle interme- studying the feasibility of USW for joining similar and dissimilar
tallic does not occur in the case of AleTi, the exceptional strength of nonferrous alloys. The common problem of voids formations
AleTi joints is compared to that of other dissimilar combinations, encountered in producing a successful autogenous joint is due to
such as AleMg and AleFe. The maximum welding temperature was the surface contaminants and passive layer protection over the
540
C, and it took around 2 s to attain this maximum temperature. substrates. By using the optimal selection of USW parameters i.e.,
AA6111 Al and TiAl6V4 alloy were effectively welded together by welding pressure, welding time and amplitude, the surface asper-
Zhang et al. [21] utilizing high power USW. The peak load (lap ities can be removed so that defects can be eliminated from the
shear strength) can match the strength level of similar joints of Al joint interface. Thus, relating to all these issues, the USW was
alloy. The USW welds have two distinct fracture mechanisms. These studied to have a defect free joint of AA6061-T6 Al alloy. The pri-
are called the “pull-out” mode and the “interfacial failure” mode, mary purpose of this study is to optimize the USW parameters
correspondingly. The peak failure load of AleTi welds was 3.5 kN, mainly welding amplitude, time and pressure for enhancing the
on par with that of similar welds of Al alloy. Due to the absence of TSFL strength of lap joints of AA 6061-T6 Al alloy for automotive
brittle intermetallic in the case of AleTi, the exceptional strength of applications.
AleTi joints is comparable to that of other dissimilar combinations,
such as AleMg and AleFe. A drop in failure energy coincided with 2. Experimental methodology
this shift in fracture mode.
The stastical technique of response surface methodology 2.1. Materials
(RSM) is widely used by the researchers for optimizing the
welding parameters to enhance the strength performance of The rolled sheets of AA6061-T6 alloy were chosen as base metal
joints [22e24]. The RSM is also used for formulating the predic- (BM). Table 1 shows the elemental contents and Table 2 shows the
tion models to predict the joint characteristics [25]. The RSM is mechanical properties of BM. The Al alloy sheets were cut to the
also unitized to analyze the process parametric effect of joint standard dimensions of 75  25  1.27 mm for developing the
performance [26]. The techniques of neural network (ANN), specimens for TSFL testing. The TSFL specimens were spot welded
Taguchi method and genetic algorithm are reported in literature
for USW, but RSM is widely preferred. Elangovan et al. [27]
optimized USW parameters using RSM to join Cu sheets and found Table 1
Chemical composition of AA6061-T6 alloy BM.
that the Cu joints made using welding pressure of 2 bar, time of
2.25 s and amplitude of 50 mm exhibited greater strength of Elements Mg Si Fe Mn Cu Cr Zn Ti Al
1.6 MPa. Samir et al. [28] optimized the USW parameters using Wt % 1.2 0.81 0.7 0.15 0.4 0.35 0.25 0.15 Balance
RSM for joining multilayer foils of AA8011 alloy and reported that
the joint strength is significantly controlled by the welding time,
pressure and amplitude of vibrations. Yao et al. [29] joined Cu Table 2
wire to Al plates using USW and optimized the process parameters Mechanical properties of AA6061-T6 alloy BM.
using RSM. The welding height, energy and pressure were used as
Yield Strength Tensile Strength Elongation Hardness
influencing factors whereas the welding time and strength were (MPa) (MPa) (%) (HV)
used as response. The results showed that the optimum joint
225 282.4 17 107
combination was achieved at the welding height of 2.2 mm,
27
P. Rajalingam, S. Rajakumar, S. Kavitha et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 7 (2024) 25e36

in lap joint configuration as shown in Fig. 3. The schematic of joint affecting the weld characteristics are identified as welding
set up and USW machine used for study is shown in Figs. 4 and 5 amplitude (%), welding time (s) and weld pressure (bar). The vi-
respectively. The shape of the sonotrode tip is circular having bration frequency should always be above or equivalent to 20 kHz
0.5 mm the diameter. for USW. The frequency range for the present USW machine is
20 kHz. The four amplitudes of vibrations are present in ultrasonic
2.2. Design of experimental matrix and welding generator i.e., 21, 18.9, 16.8, and 14.7 mm for the current machine.
The vibration amplitudes were varied manually by adjusting to
The welding amplitude, time and pressure were observed to be 100%, 90%, 80%, and 70% of 21 mm. The delay time of 5 s and
the most significant parameters in USW of AA6061-T6 alloy that holding time of 10 s was kept constant. The range of the USW
influences the TSFL strength of joints. The working limits of USW parameters for joining Al alloy sheets are shown in Table 3. It
for joining Al alloy sheets were set after many trials using several consists of 03 factors, and 03 levels. The upper limit of a factor was
combinations of USW parameters. The fish bone diagram for coded as þ1, and the lower limit was a factor coded as 1. The
parametric range of USW in making the lap joints of Al alloy is central composite design (CCD) matrix was prepared by employ-
displayed in Fig. 6. By analyzing the nugget formation and defect ing the software of Design Expert 7.0. The CCD was faced centred
in USW welds, the parametric range of USW parameters was (CCF) type which includes the star points at the centre of each face
decided. Based on preliminary trials, the USW parameters of factorial space. The CCD matrix has 17 experimental runs
shown in Table 4.

2.3. Mechanical testing and microstructure

The TSFL specimens were prepared as per ANSI/AWS/SAE/D8.9-

97 standard. The test of TSFL was done employing a universal
testing machine (UTM) having a rated capacity of 50 kN. The TSFL-
specimens were sheared by applying tensile shear loading of
1.50 kN/min. The average of 03 tests was put as the final TSFL value.
Vickers microhardness tester, in accordance with ASTM E384-17
Fig. 3. Dimensions of TSFL specimen.
standard, was employed for evaluating the microhardness of
various areas of Al alloy joints. The load of indentation was kept at
0.5 kg, and dwell duration was kept at 15 s. The Al alloy joints made
using the lower and higher levels of USW parameters were taken
and further analyzed for microstructural features. The microstruc-
tural analysis was carried out using optical microscope. Keller's
reagent (50 ml of water, 10 ml HF, 15 ml HCl and 25 ml of HNO3) was
utilized for etching polished cross-sectional area of Al alloy joints
for 20 s.

3. Result and discussion

3.1. Development of strength prediction model to predict the TSFL of

USW joints

The SPM were developed for predicting the TSFL strength of

USW joints of Al alloy. The WA, WT, and WP notations represent
Fig. 4. Schematic of joint set up. welding amplitude, welding time, and welding pressure. The
response surface for USW of AA6061-T6 alloy is presented in
equation (1) as a function of the variables of process.

Y ¼ f ðWA; WT; WPÞ (1)

The unform form of true response function f is required to be
determined as presented in equation (1). When there are 03
available independent USW parameters, then the higher order
polynomial regression models are crucial to be used. The regression
equations of 1st order which represent the true response surface in
a smaller region were selected above the regression equations of
2nd order for the prediction of TSFL of USW joints of Al alloy. The
response function of 2nd order was employed for fitting the SPM of
TSFL using multiple regressions.
The polynomial regression equations of 2nd order for USW of
AA6061-T6 alloy were employed for developing the response sur-
face “Y."
X X X
Y ¼ b0 þ bi x i þ bii x2i þ bij xi xj þ er (2)

The polynomial equation of 2nd order for the 03 independent

Fig. 5. Photograph of USW machine. input USW parameters could be represented as:
28
P. Rajalingam, S. Rajakumar, S. Kavitha et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 7 (2024) 25e36

Fig. 6. Parametric range for USW of AA6061-T6 Al alloy.

X  X X
Table 3
bo ¼ 0:142857 aY  0:035714 a a ðXii YÞ (4)
Parametric range for USW of AA6061-T6 alloy sheets.

Sr. No. Parameter Notation Units Level X 

1 0 þ1 bi ¼ 0:041667 aXi Y (5)
1. Welding Amplitude A % 70 85 100
X X X
2. Welding Time T s 18 21 24
bii ¼ 0:03125 aðXii YÞ þ 0:00372 a aðXii YÞ
3. Welding Pressure P bar 5 5.5 6 X  (6)
e 0:035714 aY

Table 4 X  
Design matrix and the results of TSFL tests. bij ¼ 0:0625 a Xij Y (7)
Exp. No Original value TSFL (kN) Employing Design Expert 7.0 software, the regression co-
WA (W) WT (mm/s) WP (Hz) efficients of the 2nd order model for USW joints of AA6061-T6 alloy
1 70 18 5.5 3.22 were analyzed at confidence of 95%. The equations with coefficient
2 100 18 5.5 3.4 values were employed for establishing the SPM. The significance of
3 70 24 5.5 3.16 regression coefficients for USW of AA6061-T6 alloy was analyzed
4 100 24 5.5 4.16
employing T-test and backward elimination. Without affecting the
5 70 21 5 1.45
6 100 21 5 4.12
prediction accuracy, the negligible regression coefficients of USW
7 70 21 6 4.42 were removed. The SPM was developed utilizing substantial USW
8 100 21 6 5.08 coefficients. The below equation is the final SPM for predicting the
9 85 18 5 1.1 TSFL of USW joints.
10 85 24 5 2.9
11 85 18 6 4.06
12 85 24 6 4.3
TSFL ðkNÞ ¼ þ 4:54 þ 0:56 ðWAÞ þ 0:34 ðWTÞ þ 1:04 ðWPÞ
13 85 21 5.5 4.52 þ 0:20 ðWA x WTÞ  0:50 ðWA x WPÞ
14 85 21 5.5 4.96    
15 85 21 5.5 4.28  0:39 ðWT x WPÞ  0:19 WA2  0:87 WT2
16 85 21 5.5 4.6  
17 85 21 5.5 4.34  0:58 WP2

n (8)
Y ¼ b0 þ b1 ðLPÞ þ b2 ðWSÞ þ b3 ðPFÞ þ b12 ðLP X WSÞ

þ b13 ðLP X PFÞ þ b23 ðWS X PFÞ þ b11 ðLPÞ2 þ b12 ðWSÞ2 3.2. Validating the feasibility of SPM of USW joint
o
þ b23 ðPFÞ2
The developed SPM of USW joint was validated for the feasi-
(3) bility using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Table 5 presents the re-
sults of ANOVA for TSFL of USW joints. The SPMs are proved to be
where Y ¼ response, Xi and Xj ¼ encoded independent variables, feasible if the standard F ratio (from the table) is greater than the
b0 ¼ mean response and bi, bii and bij ¼ coefficients depending on computed F ratio at a specified degree of confidence. The SPM was
linear, interaction and quadratic effects of parameters. validated at 95% confidence. The validation of the developed SPM
For developing the SPM of TSFL, the regression coefficients may was proved by the estimated F-values of 13.27. This high “model F-
be calculated using the following formulae. value” probability being caused noise is 0.13%. This shows that the

29
P. Rajalingam, S. Rajakumar, S. Kavitha et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 7 (2024) 25e36

Table 5
ANOVA test results of SPM for TSFL of USWed AA6061-T6 alloy joints.

Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F-value p-value

Model 19.00 9 2.11 13.27 0.0013 significant

WA 2.54 1 2.54 15.99 0.0052
WT 0.94 1 0.94 5.90 0.0455
WP 8.59 1 8.59 54.01 0.0002
WA X WT 0.17 1 0.17 1.06 0.3381
WA X WP 1.01 1 1.01 6.35 0.0398
WP X WT 0.61 1 0.61 3.83 0.0914
WA2 0.15 1 0.15 0.94 0.3638
WT2 3.16 1 3.16 19.86 0.0029
WP2 1.43 1 1.43 9.02 0.0198
Residual 1.11 7 0.16
Lack of Fit 0.83 3 0.28 3.82 0.1141 not significant
Pure Error 0.29 4 0.07
Cor Total 20.11 16
Std. Dev. 0.40 R2 0.9446
Fit Statistics Mean 3.77 Adjusted R2 0.8735
C·V. % 10.58 Predicted R2 0.3209
Adeq Precision 11.586

TSFL of USW joints is significantly influenced by the USW param- out to evaluate the precision of SPM in prediction of TSFL of USW
eters. Because the values of “prob > F00 are lesser than 0.050, the joints. The percentage error was calculated using the comparison of
USW parameters clearly have a dominant effect. Values over 0.10 the actual and predicted TSFL values, as shown in Table 6. It was
disclosed the minimal parametric effect of USW. For the TSFL of determined from the results that the mean percentage error for
USW joints, the lack of fit is not substantial when compared to pure SPM is not more than 1.0%. Fig. 8 displays the plot for the actual and
error. For TSFL of USW joints, the “lack of fit” value is 3.82. Noise predicted values of TSFL of USW joints. Fig. 9 illustrates the
could rise the higher “lack of fit” probability for TSFL by 11.41%. A perturbation plot for TSFL which contrasts the impact of USW pa-
minor absence of fit values is beneficial. The signal-to-noise ratio is rameters at a specific region in the design space. The sensitivity of
defined by the value of “Adeq. Precision,” which must be higher USW joints for TSFL at their respective levels of USW parameters is
than 4.0 to have desirability. The “Adeq. Precision” scores for TSFL is displayed in the perturbation plot by steep curvature associated
11.586, indicating that the SPM signal is adequate. You may employ with USW parameters.
the SPM of TSFL to move about the design space.
Fig. 7 shows the plot of normal probability of residuals for the Table 6
TSFL of USW joints of Al alloy. The residual points drawn on a Comparing actual TSFL with RSM predicted TSFL.
straight line show the normal distribution of errors. The justifica-
Run Order TSFL
tions made it clear that the SPM for the TSFL of USW joints were
validated, and they also made them suitable for use in actual USW. Actual Value Predicted Value % Error

By changing the values of the USW parameter in coded terms, 2 3.40 3.50 2.94
the existing SPM may be effectively used in prediction of TSFL of 10 2.90 2.79 3.79
17 4.34 4.54 4.62
USW joints of AA6061-T6 alloy. The test of conformance was carried

Fig. 7. Residual plot of normal probability of TSFL. Fig. 8. Actual TSFL vs predicted TSFL.

30
P. Rajalingam, S. Rajakumar, S. Kavitha et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 7 (2024) 25e36

joints made using welding amplitude of 100%, welding time of

21 s and welding pressure of 6 bar. The developed SPM of TSFL
was combined into the numerical optimization for determining
the factor space that offers the best compromise on an optimal
solution for meeting the numerous objectives. Table 7 displays
the higher and lower values of USW parameters, its relevance
level, and the goal of optimization. Based on the maximization
criteria selected for the optimization research, Table 8 provides
the combinations of USW parameters. For joining AA6061-T6
alloy, USW parameters were chosen based on desirability func-
tion. The USW parameters with the greatest desirability function
of 0.999 was selected as the optimal USW parameters. Table 9
shows the optimum actual and predicted USW parameters for

Table 7
Optimization criteria.

Name Objective Lower Upper Importance

limit limit

Welding Amplitude, WA (%) In range 70 100 e

Fig. 9. Perturbation graphs. Welding time, WT (s) In range 18 24 e
Welding pressure, WP (Bar) In range 5 6 e
TSFL (kN) Maximize 1.1 5.08 5

3.3. Optimizing USW parameters

Table 8
The optimization study for USW of AA6061-T6 alloy is Optimized solutions for maximizing TSFL of USWed AA6061-T6 alloy joints.
designed to enhance the TSFL strength of joints. The 3D response
Sr. No. LP WS PF SL-LSFL Desirability Decision
surface graphs for TSFL of USWed AA6061-T6 alloy joints is (W) (mm/s) (Hz) (kN)
presented in Fig. 10. The greater values of TSFL are shown by the
1 100 21.69 5.69 5.07 0.999 Selected
red-colored region. It shows that the TSFL is greater for the spot

Fig. 10. 3D response surface plots: a) Welding time vs Welding amplitude; b) Welding pressure vs Welding amplitude; c) Welding pressure vs Welding time.

31
P. Rajalingam, S. Rajakumar, S. Kavitha et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 7 (2024) 25e36

Table 9
Optimized USW parameters for joining AA6061-T6 alloy and respective TSFL.

Condition WA (%) WT (s) WP (Bar) LSFL (kN)

Experimental optimization 100 21 6 5.08

Predicted by RSM 100 21.69 5.69 5.07

joining AA6061-T6 alloy. The findings indicated a fair degree of

agreement between experimental and predicted optimal USW
parameter and TSFL strength of joints. The predictions revealed Fig. 12. Macrograph of optimized joint.
that the USW joints with greater TSFL of 5.07 kN were produced
using WA of 100%, WT of 21.69 s and WP of 5.69 bar. The welding
amplitude significantly affects the USW process. The optimal energy transferred and pressure applied over the workpiece by
welding amplitude is found to be 100% (21 mm), suggesting that the sonotrode. The joints also have some voids and incomplete
the process parameters are sub-optimal. The optimal process bonding regions in the weld.
parameters set are locally optimal rather than globally optimal. The SEM fractograph of the TSFL specimen of the joint made
The regression model used to predict the optimal process using optimized USW parameters is shown in Fig. 14. An interfacial
parameter set is applicable locally. fracture occurred in the joint. The maximum load that the joint was
able to withstand was 5.08 kN and the fractured surface exposed
3.4. Hardness of optimized joint cleavage mode of failure in the joint. The fractographs disclosed the
cleavage facet regions and the cracks. A region can be seen where
Fig. 11 shows the microhardness distribution of AA6061-T6 joint the material fails by peeling from the joint area and exposes a re-
made using optimized USW parameters. The hardness of different gion of crack besides the deforming region.
regions of joint such as weld nugget, interface, and BM region was
evaluated. The maximum hardness of 78 HV was recorded in the 3.6. Effect of USW parameters on TSFL of joints
weld interface region. This is due to the evolution of finer grains in
the joint interface. 3.6.1. Effect of welding time
The welding time is the time during which the ultrasonic vi-
3.5. Macro and microstructural features brations are transferred through from the sonotrode tip to the
workpiece. Fig. 15 shows the effect of welding time on TSFL of USW
The macrostructure of the joint made using optimized USW joints. Increase in welding time from 18 s to 21 s showed increase in
parameters is shown in Fig. 12. The macrograph clearly shows the TSFL of joints from 3 kN to 5.08 kN. However, further increase in
spot-welded area that has an area similar to the area of the welding time to 24 s showed reduction in TSFL of joints to 2.7 kN.
sonotrode tip. The area adjacent to the spot remains to be The macrostructure and optical micrographs of joints made using
unwelded and appears to have a gap between them. The optical lower and higher level of welding time are shown in Figs. 16 and 17.
microstructure of the cross-section of the joint is shown in Fig. 13. The joints made using welding time of 18 s showed presence of
The micrographs show a clearly defined joint interface area. The voids in the joint interface which reduces the TSFL of joints. The
region near the spot weld exhibited microcracks due to high joints made using welding time of 24 s showed deformed weld

Fig. 11. Microhardness distribution of optimized joint.

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P. Rajalingam, S. Rajakumar, S. Kavitha et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 7 (2024) 25e36

Fig. 13. Optical micrograph of optimized joint: a) region of welded area; b) region adjacent to weld.

Fig. 14. Fracture morphologies of welded joints: a) region of welded area; b) region adjacent to weld.

region. The deformed weld region leads to stress concentration

sites and lowers the TSFL of joints.

3.6.2. Effect of welding amplitude

The welding amplitude is the energy that is transferred in the
form of ultrasonic vibrations to the workpiece. Fig. 18 shows the
effect of welding amplitude on TSFL of USW joints. Increase in
welding amplitude from 70% to 100% showed increase in TSFL of
joints from 3 kN to 5.08 kN. The macrostructure and optical mi-
crographs of joints made using lower and higher level of welding
time are shown in Figs. 19 and 20. The joints made using welding
amplitude of 70% showed a clear joint separation line and the
interface is not properly welded. This infers that the vibrational
energy at welding amplitude of 70% is not enough to weld the metal
surfaces. The presence of voids in the joint interface reduces the
TSFL of joints. The joints made using welding amplitude of 100%
showed the interface region filled with stream of metal that passed
Fig. 15. Effect of welding time on TSFL of AA6061-T6 alloy joints. through the joint interface because of plastic flow that occurred.

Fig. 16. Macrostructure of joints made using welding time of a) 18 s and b) 24 s.

33
P. Rajalingam, S. Rajakumar, S. Kavitha et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 7 (2024) 25e36

Fig. 17. Optical microstructure of joints made using welding time: a) 18 s; b) 24 s.

Fig. 18. Effect of welding amplitude on TSFL of AA6061-T6 alloy joints. Fig. 21. Effect of welding pressure on TSFL of AA6061-T6 alloy joints.

Fig. 19. Macrostructure of joints made using welding amplitude of a) 70% and b) 100%.

Fig. 20. Optical microstructure of joints made using welding amplitude of a) 70% and b) 100%.

34
P. Rajalingam, S. Rajakumar, S. Kavitha et al. International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture 7 (2024) 25e36

Fig. 22. Macrostructure of joints made using welding pressure of a) 5 bar and b) 6 bar.

Fig. 23. Optical microstructure of joints made using welding pressure of a) 5 bar, b) 6 bar.

3.6.3. Effect of welding pressure 4. The USW joints fabricated using welding amplitude of 100%,
The welding pressure is the pressure that is axially applied welding time of 21 s, welding pressure of 6 bar exhibited greater
over the workpieces that transfers the vibrations with the help TSFL capacity of 5.08 kN.
axial compressive force and shear force that joins the thin sheets. 5. The maximum hardness of 78 HV was achieved in the interface
Fig. 21 shows the effect of welding pressure on TSFL of USW region. This is due to the refinement of grains near the region
joints. Increase in welding pressure from 5 MPa to 6 MPa showed compared to grains near to the area adjacent to base metal.
increase in TSFL of joints from 3 kN to 5.08 kN. The macro- 6. The fracture that occurred in the joint was in interfacial mode.
structure and optical micrographs of joints made using lower and The fractured surface exposed cleavage mode of failure in the
higher levels of welding pressure are shown in Figs. 22 and 23. joint.
The joints made using welding pressure of 5 MPa showed the 7. The welding amplitude significantly affects the USW process.
improper joint formation and minimum contact areas at the joint The optimal welding amplitude is found to be 100% (21 mm),
interface. This reduces the TSFL of joints. The joints made using suggesting that the process parameters are sub-optimal. The
welding pressure of 6 MPa showed proper joint formation. It optimal process parameters set are locally optimal rather than
showed metal to metal contact at many points with minimal globally optimal. The regression model used to predict the
voids because of the adequate plastic flow that occurred at the optimal process parameter set is applicable locally.
joint interface.
Conflicts of interest
4. Conclusions
The authors declare that they have no known competing
1. The ultrasonic spot welding (USW) was successfully used to financial interests or personal relationships that could have
develop the lap joints of thin AA 6061-T6 aluminium alloy appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
sheets without defect because it is difficult to spot weld using
resistance spot welding (RSW) and laser beam spot welding Acknowledgment
(LBSW) processes due to its high electrical conductivity, thermal
conductivity and light reflectivity respectively. The author wishes to thank the Director, All India Council for
2. The response surface methodology (RSM) was effectively Technical Education, New Delhi, India for providing financial sup-
employed to optimize the USW parameters specifically welding port to carry out this research work under AICTE-RPS project
amplitude (%), time (s) and pressure (bar) for joining AA6061-T6 scheme (Project No. 8e85/RIFD/RPS/Policy-I/2016e17).
alloy and enhance the tensile shear fracture load (TSFL) bearing
capability of USW joints. It provided a greater information on References
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