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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents a review of relevant literature and studies that provide a strong foundation

for understanding the relationship between school administrators’ leadership styles and teaching

styles. It explores existing theories, frameworks, and empirical research that highlight how

different leadership approaches influence teaching effectiveness, student engagement, and

overall school performance. Additionally, the chapter examines studies on various teaching

methodologies and their impact on learning outcomes. By analyzing these sources, this review

aims to establish a scholarly context for the study, identify gaps in the existing research, and

support the study’s objectives with relevant findings and perspectives.

Related Literature

Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership is a leadership style that emphasizes motivation, inspiration,

and the development of individuals to achieve their highest potential. This leadership approach

fosters a shared vision, encourages creativity, and promotes professional growth, making it

particularly effective in educational settings (Bass & Riggio, 2020). Transformational school

administrators create an inclusive and empowering environment that enhances teacher

effectiveness and student outcomes (Leithwood et al., 2021). Unlike transactional leadership,

which focuses on structure and rewards, transformational leadership prioritizes innovation,

collaboration, and long-term success (Northouse, 2021). Research has demonstrated that

transformational leadership positively impacts teacher motivation, instructional quality, and

institutional growth, making it a critical factor in the success of modern educational institutions

(Hallinger, 2020).
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Transformational leadership can be examined through several key domains and

subdomains. One essential domain is visionary leadership, where administrators articulate a

compelling vision that guides the institution toward long-term objectives. This includes strategic

planning, inspirational motivation, and institutional change management, all of which contribute

to a dynamic and forward-thinking educational environment (Avolio & Yammarino, 2020).

Another crucial domain is teacher and student development, which focuses on professional

development, student-centered learning, and mentorship. Transformational leaders actively

support continuous learning opportunities for teachers and encourage instructional methods that

prioritize student engagement and academic growth (Hallinger, 2020).

Additionally, intellectual stimulation plays a vital role in transformational leadership, as it

promotes a culture of innovation and problem-solving within schools. Administrators encourage

creative teaching strategies, foster collaboration, and utilize data-driven decision-making to

enhance educational outcomes (Podsakoff et al., 2020). Another significant domain is

individualized consideration, where leaders provide personalized support to faculty and students.

This involves demonstrating emotional intelligence, fostering a supportive work environment,

and ensuring culturally responsive leadership to address the diverse needs of the school

community (Eagly et al., 2023). Lastly, organizational commitment and collaboration strengthen

school cohesion and teamwork. Leaders who engage teachers, parents, and students in decision-

making processes create a participatory culture that enhances institutional success (Hallinger &

Heck, 2022).

These domains collectively highlight the comprehensive nature of transformational

leadership and its profound impact on educational institutions. Visionary leadership ensures

strategic direction, while teacher and student development fosters professional and academic

growth. Intellectual stimulation encourages innovation, and individualized consideration

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supports the well-being of educators and students. Finally, organizational commitment

strengthens collaboration, ensuring sustainable leadership practices. By integrating these

elements, transformational school administrators can create an environment that enhances

learning experiences and drives institutional excellence (Fullan, 2023).

Transactional Leadership

Transactional leadership is a leadership style that focuses on structured tasks, clear

expectations, and the use of rewards and punishments to motivate followers (Bass, 2020). It is

rooted in the principle of exchange, where leaders provide incentives for performance while

enforcing disciplinary actions for non-compliance (Burns, 2021). In educational institutions,

transactional leadership is commonly observed in school administrators who implement strict

policies, monitor teacher performance, and ensure adherence to institutional guidelines

(Northouse, 2021). Unlike transformational leadership, which encourages innovation and vision,

transactional leadership prioritizes efficiency, consistency, and goal attainment within a well-

defined framework (Podsakoff et al., 2020). While some critics argue that transactional

leadership may limit creativity and teacher autonomy, proponents highlight its effectiveness in

maintaining order and achieving institutional objectives (Avolio & Yammarino, 2020).

Transactional leadership can be examined through several key domains and subdomains.

One essential domain is contingent reward systems, which involve setting clear expectations and

rewarding teachers and students based on their performance. This includes merit-based

incentives, salary adjustments, and recognition programs that encourage adherence to

institutional standards (Leithwood et al., 2021). Another important domain is active management

by exception, where school administrators closely monitor activities and intervene immediately

when performance deviates from expected standards. This approach ensures accountability and

minimizes disruptions in academic operations (Hallinger, 2020).

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Another crucial aspect is passive management by exception, where leaders only take

corrective action when serious issues arise. Unlike active management, passive leaders intervene

after problems have occurred, which can sometimes lead to delayed responses and reduced

efficiency in school management (Eagly et al., 2023). Additionally, hierarchical structure and

authority play a significant role in transactional leadership, as administrators enforce rules,

regulations, and institutional protocols. This structured approach fosters a disciplined educational

environment but may limit teacher autonomy and innovation (Fullan, 2023). Lastly, performance

monitoring and evaluation is an integral part of transactional leadership, as it ensures that

teachers and students meet institutional benchmarks. Regular assessments, standardized testing,

and teacher evaluations are commonly used to maintain accountability and performance

consistency (Podsakoff et al., 2020).

These domains collectively highlight the structured nature of transactional leadership in

educational settings. While contingent reward systems and performance monitoring drive

motivation and efficiency, active and passive management by exception help maintain order. The

hierarchical structure ensures clear authority, but it may also limit flexibility and creative

teaching approaches. Despite its structured nature, transactional leadership remains effective in

maintaining institutional stability and achieving short-term goals (Bass & Riggio, 2020).

Laissez-Faire Leadership

Laissez-faire leadership is a hands-off leadership style characterized by minimal direct

supervision and a high degree of autonomy for subordinates. This leadership approach allows

employees or team members to make decisions independently, with leaders intervening only

when necessary (Northouse, 2021). While this leadership style can foster creativity, innovation,

and self-motivation, it can also lead to confusion, lack of direction, and decreased productivity if

team members do not possess the necessary skills and discipline (Avolio & Yammarino, 2020).
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In educational settings, laissez-faire leadership is often observed in school administrators who

grant teachers significant independence in their teaching methodologies, curriculum choices, and

classroom management strategies (Bass & Riggio, 2020).

The laissez-faire leadership style can be analyzed through several key domains and

subdomains. One significant domain is decision-making autonomy, where leaders delegate

authority and empower subordinates to make critical decisions without constant oversight. In

educational institutions, this may involve allowing teachers to design their lesson plans, select

instructional materials, and implement innovative teaching strategies without administrative

interference (Eagly et al., 2023). Another important domain is minimal supervision, where

leaders provide little to no direct oversight, assuming that employees or team members are

capable of managing their responsibilities effectively. This can be beneficial in environments

where individuals are highly skilled and self-driven but may lead to inefficiencies in less

structured settings (Podsakoff et al., 2020).

Additionally, flexibility and innovation are crucial aspects of laissez-faire leadership. By

allowing teachers and staff to operate independently, this leadership style encourages creativity

and the development of new teaching techniques, ultimately fostering an adaptive learning

environment (Leithwood et al., 2021). However, the lack of accountability mechanisms is

another domain that can present challenges. Without clear performance monitoring, some

employees may become disengaged, leading to reduced productivity and inefficiency in

achieving organizational goals (Hallinger, 2020). Lastly, workplace morale and job satisfaction

play a vital role in laissez-faire leadership outcomes. While some individuals thrive under this

leadership style, others may feel unsupported due to the absence of direct guidance, leading to

frustration and uncertainty in their roles (Fullan, 2023).

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These domains collectively illustrate the strengths and weaknesses of laissez-faire

leadership. While decision-making autonomy and flexibility promote innovation, the lack of

supervision and accountability mechanisms can create inefficiencies. This leadership style is

most effective in environments where individuals are highly skilled, motivated, and capable of

self-management. However, in educational institutions, administrators must balance autonomy

with structured support to ensure that teachers and students receive the necessary guidance for

success (Bass, 2020).

Expert Teaching Style (Highly Structured, Content-Focused)

The expert teaching style is a structured, content-driven approach in which the teacher

serves as the primary source of knowledge, delivering well-organized and detailed subject matter

to students. This teaching style emphasizes mastery of content, precision in instruction, and

structured lesson planning to ensure that students acquire in-depth knowledge of the subject

(Grasha, 2020). Teachers who adopt this style are often highly knowledgeable in their fields and

prioritize delivering factual, evidence-based information with minimal deviation from the

curriculum.

A key domain of this teaching style is content mastery, where educators focus on

providing students with a strong foundation in subject matter through detailed explanations,

examples, and structured lesson plans (Brookfield, 2021). This approach ensures that students

receive accurate and comprehensive knowledge, particularly in technical or theoretical

disciplines. Another important domain is teacher-centered instruction, where the educator takes

full control of the learning environment, directing discussions and pacing lessons according to

predetermined objectives (Felder & Brent, 2020). While this approach minimizes distractions

and ensures consistency, it may limit student engagement and critical thinking opportunities.
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Lecture-based delivery is another defining characteristic of the expert teaching style.

Instructors primarily rely on lectures, presentations, and structured demonstrations to convey

information, often supplemented by textbooks, research articles, and academic resources (Biggs

& Tang, 2020). This method ensures clarity and efficiency but may not always accommodate

diverse learning preferences. Assessment-driven learning is also a crucial subdomain, as this

teaching style often incorporates frequent quizzes, structured assignments, and standardized

assessments to measure students' understanding and retention of the content (Sadler, 2021).

Finally, rigorous academic standards are a defining aspect of expert teaching. Educators

who adopt this style set high expectations for student performance, emphasizing discipline,

precision, and mastery of concepts (Knight, 2022). While this can motivate students to strive for

excellence, it may also create pressure for those who struggle with rigid instructional methods.

Overall, the expert teaching style is most effective in fields that require precise knowledge, such

as mathematics, sciences, and law. While it ensures clarity and depth in instruction, educators

must balance structure with interactive learning strategies to maintain student engagement and

foster critical thinking (Weimer, 2020).

Formal Authority Teaching Style (Directive, Rules-Based)

The formal authority teaching style is a directive and structured approach where teachers

establish clear expectations, enforce rules, and maintain a position of authority in the classroom.

This teaching style emphasizes discipline, order, and adherence to established guidelines,

ensuring that students follow structured learning pathways (Grasha, 2020). Teachers using this

approach focus on maintaining control over classroom activities, reinforcing institutional

policies, and promoting a respectful and organized learning environment.

One of the key domains of this teaching style is teacher-centered instruction, where the

educator directs learning activities with minimal student input. Lessons are often highly
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structured, with clearly defined objectives and strict adherence to curricular requirements (Felder

& Brent, 2020). This structure helps minimize distractions and ensures that students stay on track

with academic goals.

Another critical domain is rule enforcement and discipline, where teachers implement

firm classroom management strategies to maintain order and encourage responsible behavior

among students (Marzano, 2021). This includes setting clear behavioral expectations, enforcing

consequences for rule violations, and fostering an environment of accountability. While this

approach helps maintain control, excessive rigidity may hinder student creativity and

independent thinking.

The directive instructional approach is also a defining characteristic, as teachers actively

guide students through lessons with step-by-step instructions (Biggs & Tang, 2020). This ensures

that learning remains organized and systematic, particularly in subjects that require precision,

such as mathematics and sciences. However, this approach may limit student engagement in

exploratory or inquiry-based learning.

Additionally, assessment-driven evaluation plays a significant role in this teaching style,

as students are frequently tested on their ability to meet predefined standards. Teachers use

structured assessments, such as quizzes, exams, and standardized tests, to measure student

progress and reinforce learning objectives (Sadler, 2021). This method ensures accountability but

may create pressure on students who prefer a more flexible learning environment.

Finally, hierarchical teacher-student relationships define the formal authority teaching

style. Educators establish clear boundaries, positioning themselves as knowledge holders and

decision-makers while expecting students to respect authority and follow instructions (Knight,

2022). This structure helps maintain discipline but may discourage open discussions and

collaborative learning.
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Overall, the formal authority teaching style is effective in maintaining structure, discipline, and

academic rigor. However, to maximize student engagement, educators should balance authority

with opportunities for student interaction and critical thinking (Weimer, 2020).

Personal Model Teaching Style (Demonstration-Model Approach)

The personal model teaching style is a hands-on, demonstration-based approach in which

teachers lead by example, modeling behaviors, skills, and thought processes that students are

encouraged to adopt. This teaching style emphasizes learning through observation and guided

practice, allowing students to internalize and replicate the techniques demonstrated by their

instructors (Grasha, 2020). By acting as role models, teachers using this approach foster active

learning, critical thinking, and skill mastery in a structured yet engaging manner.

A primary domain of this teaching style is experiential learning, where students acquire

knowledge and skills by actively engaging in real-world applications (Kolb, 2020). Teachers

provide step-by-step demonstrations and encourage students to practice under supervision,

reinforcing learning through direct experience. This approach is particularly effective in

disciplines requiring hands-on expertise, such as science experiments, technical skills training,

and artistic endeavors.

Another critical domain is scaffolded instruction, in which teachers gradually transition

from direct demonstration to guided practice and independent learning (Vygotsky, 2021).

Initially, the teacher provides explicit instructions and models the desired behaviors, then

progressively reduces support as students gain confidence and proficiency. This structured

approach enhances student autonomy while ensuring they develop a strong foundation in the

subject matter.

The mentorship-based learning environment is another key characteristic, as teachers

using the personal model style often build strong relationships with students by offering
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individualized guidance and constructive feedback (Knight, 2022). This mentorship dynamic

fosters collaboration, motivation, and personalized learning experiences, helping students

develop both academic competencies and essential life skills.

Furthermore, this style emphasizes observational learning, where students learn by

watching their teacher's thought processes, problem-solving strategies, and decision-making

approaches in real time (Bandura, 2020). By consistently demonstrating best practices, teachers

reinforce positive learning habits and encourage students to emulate effective study techniques,

professional behaviors, and ethical decision-making.

Lastly, the application of skills in authentic contexts is integral to this teaching style.

Teachers encourage students to apply newly learned skills in practical situations, reinforcing

understanding through real-world problem-solving (Biggs & Tang, 2020). This approach not

only enhances retention but also promotes self-efficacy, allowing students to develop confidence

in their abilities.

Overall, the personal model teaching style is highly effective in skill-based disciplines

and practical learning environments, as it enables students to learn through direct observation,

guided practice, and real-world application. However, to maximize its effectiveness, teachers

should ensure that demonstrations are interactive, inclusive, and adaptable to different learning

styles (Weimer, 2020).

Facilitator Teaching Style (Student-Oriented, Interactive Approach)

The facilitator teaching style is a student-centered approach that emphasizes interactive

learning, critical thinking, and active participation. Rather than delivering information through

direct instruction, teachers act as guides, fostering an environment where students explore,

discover, and construct their own understanding of concepts (Weimer, 2020). This approach
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shifts the focus from the teacher as the primary source of knowledge to students as active

participants in their learning journey.

A key domain of this teaching style is inquiry-based learning, where students are

encouraged to ask questions, investigate problems, and develop solutions (Hmelo-Silver, 2021).

Teachers facilitate discussions and provide thought-provoking prompts, helping students develop

problem-solving skills and a deeper understanding of the subject matter. This approach fosters

independent thinking and intellectual curiosity, essential for lifelong learning.

Another domain is collaborative learning, which involves students working together to

exchange ideas, challenge assumptions, and build knowledge collectively (Johnson & Johnson,

2020). Through group discussions, peer teaching, and cooperative problem-solving, students

enhance their communication and teamwork skills, which are vital for both academic and

professional success. The teacher serves as a mediator, ensuring that discussions remain

productive and inclusive.

Experiential learning is also central to the facilitator teaching style. This subdomain

involves hands-on activities, simulations, and real-world applications that bridge theory and

practice (Kolb, 2020). By engaging in experiential learning, students develop a deeper and more

meaningful understanding of concepts as they apply them in practical settings. This method is

particularly effective in disciplines such as science, business, and social studies, where real-

world problem-solving is essential.

The student autonomy and self-regulated learning domain emphasizes empowering

students to take responsibility for their learning (Zimmerman, 2020). Teachers using the

facilitator approach encourage students to set their own learning goals, develop study strategies,

and engage in self-assessment. This promotes intrinsic motivation, self-discipline, and a strong

sense of ownership over their education.

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Finally, technology-enhanced learning plays a significant role in this teaching style, as

interactive tools such as online discussion forums, educational apps, and multimedia

presentations provide students with diverse ways to engage with content (Rosenberg, 2021).

Digital platforms allow for collaborative knowledge construction, enabling students to access

information, engage in discussions, and contribute to shared learning experiences.

Overall, the facilitator teaching style fosters a dynamic, student-driven learning

environment where learners actively construct knowledge through interaction, collaboration, and

hands-on experiences. While this approach enhances engagement and critical thinking, teachers

must ensure that students remain focused and have access to appropriate resources to support

their independent learning (Brookfield, 2020).

Delegator Teaching Style (Student-Autonomy-Focused Approach)

The delegator teaching style is a learner-centered approach that emphasizes student

autonomy, independence, and responsibility in the learning process. Teachers who adopt this

style act as facilitators rather than authoritative figures, allowing students to take ownership of

their learning experiences (Weimer, 2020). This approach aligns with constructivist principles,

where knowledge is actively built rather than passively received.

A key domain of this teaching style is self-directed learning, where students set their own

learning goals, manage their progress, and reflect on their achievements (Knowles, 2021). The

teacher provides guidance and resources but does not dictate how students should engage with

the material. This fosters a sense of responsibility and motivation, encouraging learners to take

charge of their education.

Another significant domain is problem-based learning (PBL), which involves presenting

students with real-world problems and encouraging them to develop solutions through

independent research and collaboration (Barrows, 2020). In this approach, teachers serve as
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mentors, offering support and feedback while students navigate complex challenges on their

own. PBL enhances critical thinking, decision-making, and analytical skills, preparing students

for professional environments where independent problem-solving is crucial.

Collaborative and peer learning is also integral to the delegator teaching style, as students

work together to explore concepts, exchange ideas, and evaluate each other’s work (Johnson &

Johnson, 2020). The teacher’s role is to establish a framework for collaboration while allowing

students to direct discussions and learning activities. This approach enhances communication,

leadership, and teamwork skills, essential for lifelong learning and professional development.

Additionally, experiential learning plays a crucial role in this teaching style. By engaging

in hands-on projects, internships, and real-world applications, students gain a deeper

understanding of theoretical concepts and develop practical skills (Kolb, 2020). The teacher acts

as a mentor rather than an instructor, allowing students to learn through experience, reflection,

and self-evaluation.

Finally, technology-supported autonomous learning is increasingly relevant in the

delegator approach. Digital tools such as learning management systems, online courses, and

virtual simulations empower students to explore subjects at their own pace (Rosenberg, 2021).

Teachers encourage the use of digital resources, discussion forums, and self-assessment tools,

enabling students to customize their learning paths based on their needs and interests.

Overall, the delegator teaching style supports student independence, creativity, and

responsibility, preparing learners for self-sufficient academic and professional futures. However,

it requires students to be highly motivated and disciplined, as they must take initiative and

actively engage in their learning journey without constant guidance (Brookfield, 2020).

Related Studies
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According to the study of Smith (2020) entitled "The Influence of Transformational

Leadership on Teacher Motivation and Student Performance," transformational leadership

significantly enhances teacher motivation and student engagement. This finding is supported by

the study of Wilson and Clark (2020), which found that transformational leadership also

improves teacher retention by fostering a more supportive and inspiring work environment.

Similarly, Martinez (2020) identified that transformational leadership is positively correlated

with student performance, particularly in rural schools. These studies collectively suggest that

transformational leadership plays a crucial role in maintaining a motivated and effective teaching

force while improving student outcomes.

In contrast, the study of Davis et al. (2020), "The Impact of Laissez-Faire Leadership on

Teacher Productivity," revealed that laissez-faire leadership leads to lower teacher productivity

due to a lack of administrative guidance and support. This finding aligns with Wilson and Clark’s

(2020) study, which highlighted that laissez-faire leadership results in higher teacher turnover.

Unlike transformational leadership, which actively engages teachers and fosters motivation,

laissez-faire leadership creates an environment where teachers feel unsupported and

disconnected.

On the other hand, the study of Jones and Carter (2020), "Transactional Leadership and

Teacher Job Satisfaction in Secondary Schools," found that transactional leadership can enhance

teacher job satisfaction through clear expectations and performance-based rewards. However,

excessive reliance on this leadership style was found to induce stress, which differs from Smith’s

(2020) findings on transformational leadership, where motivation was driven by inspiration

rather than rewards. This suggests that while transactional leadership provides structure and

accountability, it may not be as effective in fostering long-term motivation as transformational

leadership.
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In the context of teaching styles, Williams and Brown (2020), in their study "Expert

Teaching Styles and Student Academic Success in Higher Education," found that highly

structured, content-focused instruction helps students master academic material but may limit

engagement. This finding is similar to Miller’s (2020) study on "Formal Authority Teaching

Style and Classroom Discipline," which revealed that while a directive, rules-based approach

enhances classroom discipline, it can also stifle creativity and student participation. Both studies

suggest that overly rigid teaching styles may improve academic performance but may not

encourage interactive learning or critical thinking.

Meanwhile, Anderson and Taylor (2020), in their study "The Role of the Personal Model

Teaching Style in Skill-Based Learning," emphasized that demonstration-based teaching helps

students develop practical skills and confidence. This finding aligns with Thomas (2020), whose

research on the "Facilitator Teaching Style and Student Engagement in Online Learning," found

that interactive, student-oriented teaching methods significantly improve student engagement.

Both studies highlight the importance of hands-on and interactive learning experiences in

fostering student participation and skill acquisition.

However, Harris (2020), in the study "Delegator Teaching Style and Student Autonomy in

Higher Education," found that while student-autonomy-focused teaching fosters problem-solving

skills and independence, some students struggle with self-directed learning. This contrasts with

Williams and Brown (2020), who found that expert-led instruction, though rigid, ensured

structured learning outcomes. Harris (2020) recommends that educators gradually transition

students into independent learning rather than immediately giving them full autonomy.

Overall, these studies suggest that leadership and teaching styles must be carefully

balanced. Transformational leadership appears to be the most effective in fostering teacher

motivation, student engagement, and retention, whereas transactional leadership provides

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structure but may induce stress, and laissez-faire leadership negatively impacts productivity.

Similarly, while structured teaching styles improve academic performance, student-oriented

methods enhance engagement and creativity, suggesting that a combination of these approaches

may be the most effective in educational settings.

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