UNIT: 3

Transient Over Voltages

Generally Transients are disturbances that occur for a very short duration (less than a cycle), and
the electrical circuit is quickly restored to original operation provided no damage has occurred
due to the transient. An electrical transient is a cause-and-effect phenomenon. For transients to
occur, there must be a cause.

3.1
Sources of Transient Over voltages
There are two main sources of transient over voltages on utility systems are
i) capacitor switching
ii) lightning
These are also sources of transient over voltages as well as many of other switching phenomena
within end-user facilities. Some power electronic devices generate significant transients when
they switch.
Transient over voltages can be generated at high frequency (load switching and lightning),
medium frequency (capacitor energizing), or low frequency.
3.1.1
Capacitor switching:
One of the more common causes of electrical transients is switching of capacitor banks in power
systems. Electrical utilities switch capacitor banks during peak load hours to offset the lagging
kVAR demand of the load. The leading kVARs drawn by the capacitor banks offset the lagging
kVAR demand of the load, reducing the net kVA load on the circuit. Switching of capacitor
banks is accompanied by a surge of current which is initially limited by the characteristic
impedance of the power system and resistance of the line. A sharp reduction in the voltage is
followed by a voltage rise, which decays by oscillation at a frequency determined by the
inductance and capacitance of the circuit.
One drawback to the use of capacitors is that they yield oscillatory transients when switched.
Some capacitors are energized all the time (a fixed bank), while others are switched according to
load levels.
Various control means, including time, temperature, voltage, current, and reactive power, are
used to determine when the capacitors are switched. It is common for controls to combine two or
more of these functions, such as temperature with voltage override.
Typically, the voltage rise due to capacitor switching operation can attain values 1.5 to 2 times
the nominal voltage.
One of the common symptoms of power quality problems related to utility capacitor switching
overvoltages is that the problems appear at nearly the same time each day. On distribution
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 feeders with industrial loads, capacitors are frequently switched by time clock in anticipation
an increase in load with the beginning of the working day. Common problems are adjustable-
speed-drive trips and malfunctions of other electronically controlled load equipments.

Fig. 3.1 shows the one-line diagram of a typical utility feeder capacitor-switching situation.

Fig. 3.1. One-line diagram of a capacitor-switching of utility feeder.

3.1.2
Lightning:

Lightning is a powerful source of impulsive transients. We will concentrate on how lightning

causes transient over voltages to appear on power systems.
Figure 2.2 shows some of the places where lightning can strike that result in lightning currents
being conducted from the power system into loads. The most obvious conduction path occurs
during a direct strike to a phase wire, either on the primary or the secondary side of the
transformer. This can generate very high over voltages, but some analysts question whether this
is the most common way that lightning surges enter load facilities and cause damage. Very
similar transient over voltages can be generated by lightning currents flowing along ground
conductor paths. Note that there can be numerous paths for lightning currents to enter the
grounding system. Common ones, indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 4.6, include the primary
ground, the secondary ground, and the structure of the load facilities. Note also that strikes to the
primary phase are conducted to the ground circuits through the arresters on the service
transformer. Thus, many more lightning impulses may be observed at loads than one might think.
It is to be noted that grounds are never perfect conductors, especially for impulses. While most of
the surge current may eventually be dissipated into the ground connection closest to the strike,
there will be substantial surge currents flowing in other connected ground conductors in the first
few microseconds of the strike.

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an increase in load with the beginning of the working day. Common problems are adjustable-
speed-drive trips and malfunctions of other electronically controlled load equipments.

Fig. 3.1 shows the one-line diagram of a typical utility feeder capacitor-switching situation.

Fig. 3.1. One-line diagram of a capacitor-switching of utility feeder.

3.1.2
Lightning

Lightning is a powerful source of impulsive transients. We will concentrate on how lightning

causes transient over voltages to appear on power systems.
Figure 2.2 shows some of the places where lightning can strike those results in lightning currents
being conducted from the power system into loads. The most obvious conduction path occurs
during a direct strike to a phase wire, either on the primary or the secondary side of the
transformer. This can generate very high over voltages, but some analysts question whether this
is the most common way that lightning surges enter load facilities and cause damage. Very
similar transient over voltages can be generated by lightning currents flowing along ground
conductor paths. Note that there can be numerous paths for lightning currents to enter the
grounding system. Common ones, indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 4.6, include the primary
ground, the secondary ground, and the structure of the load facilities. Note also that strikes to the
primary phase are conducted to the ground circuits through the arresters on the service
transformer. Thus, many more lightning impulses may be observed at loads than one might think.
It is to be noted that grounds are never perfect conductors, especially for impulses. While most of
the surge current may eventually be dissipated into the ground connection closest to the strike,
there will be substantial surge currents flowing in other connected ground conductors in the first
few microseconds of the strike.

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 Fig. 3.2 Lightning discharge due to charge buildup in the clouds.

Fig. 3.3 Possible Lightning strike locations where lightning impulses will be conducted
into load facilities.

A direct strike to a phase conductor generally causes line flashover near the strike point. Not
only does this generate an impulsive transient, but it causes a fault with the accompanying
voltage sags and interruptions. The lightning surge can be conducted a considerable distance
along utility lines and cause multiple flashovers at pole and tower structures as it passes. The
interception of the impulse from the phase wire is fairly straightforward if properly installed
surge arresters are used. If the line flashes over at the location of the strike, the tail of the impulse
is generally truncated. Depending on the effectiveness of the grounds along the surge current
path, some of the current may find its way into load apparatus. Arresters near the strike may not
survive because most lightning strokes are actually many strokes in rapid-fire sequence.
Lightning does not have to actually strike a conductor to inject impulses into the power system.
Lightning may simply strike near the line and induce an impulse by the collapse of the electric
field. Lightning may also simply strike the ground near a facility causing the local ground
reference to rise considerably. This may force currents along grounded conductors into a remote
ground, possibly passing near sensitive load apparatus.
Many researchers in this field postulate that lightning surges enter loads from the utility system
through the inter-winding capacitance of the service transformer as shown in Fig. 2.3. The

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concept is that the lightning impulse is so fast that the inductance of the transformer windings
blocks the first part of the wave from passing through by the turns ratio. However, the inter
winding capacitance may offer a ready path for the high-frequency surge. This can permit the
existence of a voltage on the secondary terminals that is much higher than what the turns ratio of
the windings would suggest.

Fig.3.4 Coupling of impulses through the interwinding capacitance of transformers.

The degree to which capacitive coupling occurs is greatly dependent on the design of the
transformer. Not all transformers have a straightforward high-to-low capacitance because of the
way the windings are constructed. The winding-to-ground capacitance may be greater than the
winding-to-winding capacitance, and more of the impulse may actually be coupled to ground
than to the secondary winding. In any case, the resulting transient is a very short single impulse,
or train of impulses, because the interwinding capacitance charges quickly.
Arresters on the secondary winding should have no difficulty dissipating the energy in such a
surge, but the rates of rise can be high. Thus, lead length becomes very important to the success
of an arrester in keeping this impulse out of load equipment.
The chief power quality problems with lightning stroke currents entering the ground system are
 They raise the potential of the local ground above other grounds in the vicinity by
several kilovolts. Sensitive electronic equipment that is connected between two
ground references, such as a computer connected to the telephone system through
a modem, can fail when subjected to the lightning surge voltages.
 They induce high voltages in phase conductors as they pass through cables on the
way to a better ground.
Lightning arresters, when properly applied, can provide protection against lightning- induced
low voltages. Arresters have a well-defined conduction voltage below which they are ineffective.
This voltage depends on the rating of the arrester itself. For optimum protection, the arrester
voltage should be matched to the lightning impulse withstand of the equipment being protected.
Table 3.1 provides typical voltage discharge characteristics of arresters for various voltage
classes.

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 Table. 3.1

3.1.3
Ferroresonance
The term ferroresonance refers to a special kind of resonance that involves capacitance and iron-
core inductance. The most common condition in which it causes disturbances is when the
magnetizing impedance of a transformer is placed in series with a system capacitor. This
happens when there is an open-phase conductor. Under controlled conditions, ferroresonance can
be exploited for useful purpose such as in a constant-voltage transformer.

Ferroresonance is different than resonance in linear system elements. In linear systems,

resonance results in high sinusoidal voltages and currents of the resonant frequency. Linear
system resonance is the phenomenon behind the magnification of harmonics in power systems.
Ferroresonance can also result in high voltages and currents, but the resulting waveforms are
usually irregular and chaotic in shape
The concept of ferroresonance can be explained in terms of linear-system resonance as follows.
Consider a simple series RLC circuit as shown in Fig. 2.4. Neglecting the resistance R for the
moment, the current flowing in the circuit can be expressed as follows:

Where E = driving voltage

XL = reactance of L
XC = reactance of C
When XL = |XC|, a series-resonant circuit is formed, and the equation yields an infinitely large
current that in reality would be limited by R.

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 Fig. 3.4 Simple series RLC circuit.
An alternate solution to the series RLC circuit can be obtained by writing two equations defining
the voltage across the inductor, as given below

Figure 2.5 shows the graphical solution of these two equations for two different reactances, XL
and XL′. XL′ represents the series-resonant condition. The intersection point between the
capacitive and inductive lines gives the voltage across inductor EL.. The voltage across capacitor
EC is determined as shown in Fig. 2.5.
At resonance, the two lines will intersect at infinitely large voltage and current since the |XC| line
is parallel to the XL′ line.

Fig. 3.5 Graphical solution to the linear LC circuit.

The most common events leading to ferroresonance are

 Manual switching of an unloaded, cable-fed, three-phase transformer where only one
phase is closed (Fig. 2.6a). Ferroresonance may be noted when the first phase is closed
upon energization or before the last phase is opened on deenergization.
 Manual switching of an unloaded, cable-fed, three-phase transformer where one of the
phases is open (Fig. 2.6b). Again, this may happen during energization or deenergization.

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  One or two riser-pole fuses may blow leaving a transformer with one or two phases open.
Single-phase reclosers may also cause this condition.

Fig. 3.6 Common system conditions where ferroresonance may occur: (a) one phase closed,
(b) one phase open.

It should be noted that these events do not always yield noticeable ferroresonance. Some utility
personnel claim to have worked with underground cable systems for decades without seeing
ferroresonance. System conditions that help increase the likelihood of ferroresonance include
 Higher distribution voltage levels, most notably 25- and 35-kV-classsystems
 Switching of lightly loaded and unloaded transformers
 Ungrounded transformer primary connections.
 Very lengthy underground cable circuits.
 Cable damage and manual switching during construction of underground cable systems.

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  Weak systems, i.e., low short-circuit currents.
 Low-loss transformers.
 Three-phase systems with single-phase switching devices.
Common indicators of ferroresonance are as follows.
 Audible Noise.
 Overheating.
 High overvoltages and surge arrester failure.
 Flicker.
3.2
Principle of Over Voltage Protection
The fundamental principles of overvoltage protection of load equipments are as follows
1. Limit the voltage across sensitive insulation.
2. Divert the surge current away from the load.
3. Block the surge current from entering the load.
4. Bond grounds together at the equipment.
5. Reduce, or prevent, surge current from flowing between grounds.
6. Create a low-pass filter using limiting and blocking principles.
Figure 2.7 illustrates these principles, which are applied to protect from a lightning strike.

Fig. 3.7 Demonstrating the principles of overvoltage protection.

The main function of surge arresters and transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSSs) is to limit
the voltage that can appear between two points in the circuit. One of the points to which
arresters, or surge suppressors, are connected is frequently the local ground, but this need not be
the case. Keep in mind that the local ground may not remain at zero potential during transient
impulse events.
Surge suppression devices should be located as closely as possible to the critical insulation with
a minimum of lead length on all terminals. While it is common to find arresters located at the

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 main panels and subpanels, arresters applied at the point where the power line enters the load
equipment are generally the most effective in protecting that particular load. In some cases, the
best location is actually inside the load device. For example, many electronic controls made for
service in the power system environment have protectors [metal-oxide varistor (MOV) arresters,
gaps, zener diodes, or surge capacitors] on every line that leaves the cabinet.
In Fig. 2.7 the first arrester is connected from the line to the neutral- ground bond at the service
entrance. It limits the line voltage V1 from rising too high relative to the neutral and ground
voltage at the panel. When it performs its voltage-limiting action, it provides a low impedance
path for the surge current to travel onto the ground lead. Note that the ground lead and the
ground connection itself have significant impedance. Therefore, the potential of the whole power
system is raised with respect to that of the remote ground by the voltage drop across the ground
impedance. For common values of surge currents and ground impedances, this can be several
kilovolts.

Unit-IV: FACT Systems:

Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS):

FACTS devices are static power-electronic devices installed in AC transmission networks to increase
power transfer capability, stability, and controllability of the networks through series and/or shunt
compensation [19]. These devices are also employed for congestion management and loss
optimization. The static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) and thyristor-controlled series
capacitor (TCSC) are some of the FACTS control devices which provide series compensation to
reactance of the lines to which they are connected, while the static synchronous compensator
(STATCOM) and static VAR compensator (SVC) (where VAR stands for volt–ampere reactive) are
FACTS devices which provide shunt compensation to transmission lines. FACTS control devices also
provide adequate damping of inter area oscillations by acting as actuators in robust control schemes
and PMU-based wide-area control schemes.

Typical FACTS Device Classification and Principle:

FACTS technology is an energy conversion, transmission and control technology that uses high power
semiconductor switching devices. It is a high-tech area based on the development of high-voltage and
large-current electronic switching devices. Facing electric power systems, it integrates manufacturing
technology, modern control technology, and the traditional power grid technology, and has become
the core of FACTS. Further development of this technology will lead to a revolutionary change in
power systems, greatly improve the level of security and stability of transmission lines as well as
power transmission capacity, and greatly improve system reliability and operational flexibility. It can
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