Derivatives of Functions

Tangent Lines and Their Slopes

Let C be the curve that has equation y = f (x), where f is a function which is continuous on an interval J
containing x0 , and suppose that x0 is an interior point of J. If y0 = f (x0 ), then the point P (x0 , y0 ) is on
the curve C. If Q is a point on C different from P , then the line through P and Q is called a secant line
to the curve C.

If L is a line through P (x0 , y0 ) whose slope is the limit of the slopes of the secant lines through P and Q as
Q approaches P along C, then we say that L is tangent to C at P or L is the tangent line to the graph
of the function f (x) at P .

Since f (x) is a function, vertical lines can intersect C at most once. Since Q 6= P , Q must have a different
x−coordinate from x0 . Therefore, Q = (x0 +h, f (x0 +h)), where h 6= 0. The slope of the line passing through
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
P and Q is , and this expression is called Newton quotient or difference quotient for
h
f at x0 . (h can be negative or positive)

Figure 1

Definition : Suppose that the function f is continuous at an interior point x0 of its domain and that
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim = m exists. Then the straight line having slope m and passing through the point
h→0 h
P (x0 , f (x0 )) is called the tangent line to the graph of the function y = f (x) at P . An equation of this
tangent line is
y = m(x − x0 ) + f (x0 ).

1
Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x2 at the point (1, 1).

Solution. The slope of the tangent line is

(1 + h)2 − 1 h2 + 2h
m = lim = lim = lim (h + 2) = 0 + 2 = 2.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0

An equation of the tangent line is y − 1 = 2(x − 1), or equivalently, y = 2x − 1.

Remark : Suppose that f is a function that is continuous at an interior point x0 of its domain. Then,
using the substitution x = x0 + h, we obtain that

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) f (x) − f (x0 )

lim = lim .
h→0 h x→x0 x − x0
Therefore, the slope m of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P (x0 , f (x0 )) can also calculated
f (x) − f (x0 )
as m = lim . Provided that the limit exists.
x→x0 x − x0
2
Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola y = at the point (−2, −1).
x
Solution. The slope of the tangent line is
2 x+2
f (x) − f (−2) +1
m = lim = lim x = lim x = lim 1 = −1
x→−2 x − (−2) x→−2 x+2 x→−2 x+2 x→−2 x 2
1 1
An equation of the tangent line is y − (−1) = − (x − (−2)), or equivalently, y = − x − 2.
2 2
Definition : If the function f is continuous at x0 and if either

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim = ∞,
h→0 h
or
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim = −∞,
h→0 h
then the vertical line x = x0 is tangent to the graph of the function y = f (x) at (x0 , f (x0 )).

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
Remark : If f is a function such that lim does not exist and is not ∞ or −∞, then the
h→0 h
graph of y = f (x) has no tangent line at x = x0 .

Example. Determine whether or not the graphs of each of the following functions has a tangent line at
x = 0. If the graph has a tangent line at x = 0, find its equation.
√
3
(a) f (x) = x

(b) f (x) = x2/3

2
Solution. (a) √
3
f (0 + h) − f (0) h−0 1
lim = lim = lim 2/3 = ∞
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
1
because if h is close to 0, then h2/3 is a small positive number so that 2/3 is a large positive number.
h
√
3
Thus, the graph of y = x has a tangent line at x = 0 which is vertical, and its equation is x = 0.

(b)
f (0 + h) − f (0) h2/3 − 0 1
lim = lim = lim 1/3
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

1 1
lim = −∞ and lim = ∞.
h→0− h1/3 h→0+ h1/3
f (0 + h) − f (0)
So, the limit lim does not exist.
h→0 h
Therefore, there is no tangent line to the graph of the curve y = x2/3 .

The Derivative
Definition : The derivative of a function f is another function f 0 defined by

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
at all points x for which the limit exists (as a finite real number).

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
The derivative of a function f at a number x0 is f 0 (x0 ) = lim if this limit exists.
h
h→0
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
If f 0 (x0 ) exists, then we say that f is differentiable at x0 . If the limit lim does not
h→0 h
exist, then we say that f is not differentiable at x0 . The process of calculating the derivative f 0 of a given
function f is called differentiation.

Remark : The value of the derivative of a function f at a point x0 can also be expressed as

f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
x→x0 x − x0
provided that the limit exists, because under the substitution x = x0 + h we have

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 ) f (x) − f (x0 )

lim = lim .
h→0 h x→x 0 x − x0
f (x) − f (x0 )
If lim does not exist, then f is not differentiable at x0 .
x→x0 x − x0

3
Example. Show that the derivative of the function f (x) = x3 is f 0 (x) = 3x2 .

Solution.
f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)3 − x3
f 0 (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
3 2 2
x + 3x h + 3xh + h − x 3 3
= lim = lim (3x2 + 3xh + h2 )
h→0 h h→0
2 2 2
= 3x + 3x · 0 + 0 = 3x .

Thus, f 0 (x) = 3x2 .

Example. Show that the derivative of the function f (x) = sin x is f 0 (x) = cos x.

Solution.
f (x + h) − f (x) sin(x + h) − sin x sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
f 0 (x) = lim = lim = lim
h→0
 h h→0 h

h→0 h
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x · + cos x ·
h→0 h h

cos h − 1 (cos h − 1)(cos h + 1) cos2 h − 1 − sin2 h

lim = lim = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h(cos h + 1) h→0 h(cos h + 1) h→0 h(cos h + 1)
 
sin h 1 1
= − lim · sin h · = −1 · 0 · = 0
h→0 h cos h + 1 2

cos h − 1
So, lim = 0.
h→0 h
Therefore,

sin(x + h) − sin x cos h − 1 sin h

lim = sin x lim + cos x lim = sin x · 0 + cos x · 1 = cos x
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

Consequently, f 0 (x) = cos x.

Example. Prove that the function f (x) = |x| is not differentiable at 0.

Solution.
f (x) − f (0) |x| − 0 |x|
lim = lim = lim
x→0 x−0 x→0 x x→0 x

|x| x
lim = lim = lim 1 = 1
x→0+ x x→0 x
+ x→0+

|x| −x
lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1
x→0− x x→0− x x→0−

|x| |x| |x|

Since lim 6= lim , the limit lim does not exist. Thus, f (x) = |x| is not differentiable at 0.
x→0+ x x→0− x x→0 x

Remark : The function f (x) = |x| is continuous at 0, but it is not differentiable at 0.

4
The derivative of the function f (x) = |x| is


0 −1, if x < 0
f (x) =
1, if x > 0.
Exercise. Show that the derivative of the function f (x) = ex is f 0 (x) = ex .

Example. Let
  
1
x2 sin , if x 6= 0

f (x) = x
0, if x = 0.


(a) Determine whether or not the function f is continuous at 0.

(b) Determine whether or not the function f is differentiable at 0.

Solution.
   
1 1
(a) 0 ≤ x2 sin 2
= x sin ≤ x2 for all x ∈ R \ {0} .
x x
lim 0 = 0 and lim x2 = 02 = 0.
x→0 x→0
 
2 1
By the Squeeze Theorem, lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x
 
2 1
So, lim x sin = 0. Since f (0) = 0, we have lim f (x) = f (0). Thus, f (x) is continuous at 0.
x→0 x x→0
 
2 1
h sin  
f (0 + h) − f (0) f (h) − f (0) f (h) h 1
(b) lim = lim = lim = lim = lim h sin
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h
 
1
0 ≤ h sin ≤ |h|
h
lim 0 = 0 and lim |h| = 0.
h→0 h→0
   
1 1
By the Squeeze Theorem, lim h sin = 0. So, lim h sin = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h
Therefore, f (x) is differentiable at 0 and f 0 (0) = 0.

Theorem : If a function f is differentiable at x0 , then f is continuous at x0 .

Leibniz Notation
If y = f (x), we can use the dependent variable y to represent the function f (x), and we can denote the
derivative of f (x) with respect to x in any of the following ways:

dy df d
f 0 (x) = y 0 = = = f (x) = Dx y = Dx f (x) = Df (x)
dx dx dx
dy df d
The notations , , f (x) are called Leibniz notations for derivative.
dx dx dx

5
Differentiation Formulas
1) Derivative of a Constant Function
If f (x) = c, where c is a real number, then f 0 (x) = 0.

2) The Power Rule

d n
If n ∈ Z+ , then (x ) = nxn−1 .
dx

3) The Constant Multiple Rule

d
d
If c is a real constant and f is a differentiable function, then cf (x) = c f (x).
dx dx

4) The Sum Rule

d
d d
If f and g are differentiable functions, then f + g is differentiable and f (x) + g(x) = f (x) + g(x).
  dx dx dx
or (f + g)0 (x) = f 0 (x) + g 0 (x)

Remark : The sum rule can be extended to the sum of any number of functions. For instance, if f, g, h, k
are differentiable functions, then
d
d d d d
f (x) + g(x) + h(x) + k(x) = f (x) + g(x) + h(x) + k(x),
dx dx dx dx dx
or (f + g + h + k)0 (x) = f 0 (x) + g 0 (x) + h0 (x) + k 0 (x).

5) The Difference Rule

d
d d
If f and g are differentiable functions, then f − g is differentiable and f (x) − g(x) = f (x) − g(x).
  dx dx dx
or (f − g)0 (x) = f 0 (x) − g 0 (x)

6) The Product Rule

d
d d
If f and g are differentiable functions, then f g is differentiable and f (x)g(x) = f (x) g(x)+g(x) f (x).
 dx  dx dx
or (f g)0 (x) = f (x)g 0 (x) + g(x)f 0 (x) or (f g)0 (x) = f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g 0 (x)

Remark : The product rule can be extended to the product of any number of functions. For instance,
if f1 , f2 , ..., fn are differentiable functions, then

0
f1 f2 · · · fn (x) = f10 (x)f2 (x)f3 (x) · · · fn (x) + f1 (x)f20 (x)f3 (x) · · · fn (x) + · · · + f1 (x)f2 (x)f3 (x) · · · fn0 (x).

In particular, if f , g and h are differentiable functions, then

0
f gh (x) = f 0 (x)g(x)h(x) + f (x)g 0 (x)h(x) + f (x)g(x)h0 (x).

6
7) The Quotient Rule
f
If f and g are differentiable functions, then is differentiable and
g
d d
d  f (x)  g(x) dx f (x) − f (x) dx g(x)
=
2
dx g(x) g(x)
or  f 0 f 0 (x)g(x) − f (x)g 0 (x)
(x) =
2 ,
g g(x)
or  f 0 g(x)f 0 (x) − f (x)g 0 (x)
(x) =
2 ,
g g(x)
where g(x) 6= 0.

8) The Reciprocal Rule

d
1 d 1  − f (x)
If f is a differentiable function, then is differentiable and = dx
2 , whenever f (x) 6= 0.
f dx f (x) f (x)
(This is a corollary of the Quotient Rule)

d n
Remark : Since (x ) = nxn−1 for every n ∈ Z+ , using the Reciprocal Rule we obtain that
dx
d n
d −n d  1  − dx (x ) −nxn−1
(x ) = = 2 = = −nx−n−1
dx dx xn x 2n


x n

for every n ∈ Z+ .

9) The Power Rule (General Version)

d k
If k is any real number, then (x ) = kxk−1 .
dx
Example. Find the derivative of each of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = x4/5

4 4 4 1 4
Solution. f 0 (x) = x 5 −1 = x− 5 = 1/5
5 5 5x
√
(b) f (x) = x
√ 1 1 1 1
Solution. f (x) = x = x1/2 , f 0 (x) = x 2 −1 = x−1/2 = √
2 2 2 x
1
(c) f (x) =
x

7
 1 1
Solution. f (x) = = x−1 , so f 0 (x) = −x−2 = − 2
x x
5
(d) f (x) = 2x4 + 6 + 8
x
Solution. f 0 (x) = 8x3 − 30x−7 + 0 = 8x3 − 30x−7
x
(e) f (x) =
x2 +1
1 · (x2 + 1) − x · 2x 1 − x2
Solution. f 0 (x) = =
(x2 + 1)2 (x2 + 1)2
√  1 
Example. Let f (x) = x 2x + . Find f 0 (4).
x
√
   
0 1 1 1
Solution. f (x) = √ 2x + + x 2− 2
2 x x x
√
       
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 95
f (4) = √ 2·4+ + 4 2− 2 = 8+ +2 2− =2+ +4− =
2 4 4 4 4 4 16 16 8 16

The Chain Rule

If a function g is differentiable at x
and a function f is differentiable at g(x),
then the composite function
F = f ◦ g defined by F (x) = f g(x) is differentiable at x and F 0 (x) = f 0 g(x) g 0 (x).

dy dy du
In Leibniz notation, if y = f (u) and u = g(x) are both differentiable functions, then = · .
dx du dx
d
k
k−1 0
Corollary : If k is any real number and g is a differentiable function, then g(x) = k g(x) g (x).
dx
Example. Find the derivative of each of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = (x2 + 4x + 1)50

Solution. f 0 (x) = 50(x2 + 4x + 1)49 (2x + 4)

√
(b) f (x) = x3 + 9
√
x, h(x) = x3 + 9. Then f 0 (x) = g 0 h(x) h0 (x). So,


Solution. Let f (x) = (g ◦ h)(x) where g(x) =
1 3x2
f 0 (x) = √ · 3x2 = √ .
2 x3 + 9 2 x3 + 9
(c) f (x) = (2x + 1)5 (4x3 − x + 1)4

Solution.

f 0 (x) = 5(2x + 1)4 2 (4x3 − x + 1)4 + (2x + 1)5 4 (4x3 − x + 1)3 (12x2 − 1)
= 10(2x + 1)4 (4x3 − x + 1)4 + 4(2x + 1)5 (4x3 − x + 1)3 (12x2 − 1)

8
  2x5 − 1 4
(d) f (x) =
x2 + 1
Solution.
3  5 0 3
2x5 − 1
 5
10x4 (x2 + 1) − (2x5 − 1) 2x

0 2x − 1 2x − 1
f (x) = 4 = 4
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 x2 + 1 (x2 + 1)2
8x(3x5 + 5x3 + 1)(2x5 − 1)3
=
(x2 + 1)5

Remark : If f is a function that
is differentiable at x0 , then the slope of the tangent line to the graph of
0
y = f (x) at the point x0 , f (x0 ) is m = f (x0 ).
√
4 x  4
Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = √ at the point 1, .
x + 2x 3
√
4 x
Solution. Let f (x) = √ .
x + 2x
1 √ √
 
1
4 · √ ( x + 2x) − 4 x √ +2 √ √ √
0 2 x 2 x 2+4 x−2−8 x −4 x
Then, f (x) = √ = √ = √ .
( x + 2x)2 ( x + 2x)2 ( x + 2x)2
−4 −4
The slope of the tangent line is m = f 0 (1) = 2 = .
3 9
4 −4
An equation of the tangent line is y − = (x − 1) or 4x + 9y = 16.
3 9

Normal Line
Let P be a point on a curve C in the xy−plane. If the curve C has a tangent line L at the point P , then
the straight line N through P perpendicular to L is called the normal line to the curve C at P .

If the tangent line L is horizontal,then the normal line N is vertical. Moreover, if L is vertical, then N is
horizontal.

If the tangent line L is neither horizontal nor vertical, and if the slope of L is m, then the slope of the normal
1
line N is − .
m
Example. Find and equation of the normal line to the curve y = x4 + 2x2 − x at the point (1, 2).

dy
Solution. = 4x3 + 4x − 1
dx
dy
= 4 · 13 + 4 · 1 − 1 = 7
dx x=1
1
The slope of the normal line is − .
7
1 1 15
An equation of the normal line is y − 2 = − (x − 1) or y = − x + .
7 7 7

9
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
d
1) sin x = cos x
dx
d
2) cos x = − sin x
dx
d
3) tan x = sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x
dx
d
4) cot x = −csc2 x = −1 − cot2 x
dx
d
5) sec x = sec x tan x
dx
d
6) csc x = −csc x cot x
dx

Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

d x
1) e = ex
dx
d x
2) a = ax · ln a for every real number a > 0.
dx
d 1
3) ln x =
dx x
d 1
4) loga x = for every real number a > 0, a 6= 1.
dx x ln a
Remark :

ln x, if x > 0
ln |x| =
ln(−x), if x < 0

So, we have

1

 if x > 0,
x

d 
ln |x| =
dx 
 1

 (−1), if x < 0
−x
1
=
x
for every nonzero real number x.

d 1
Thus, ln |x| = for every x ∈ R \ {0}.
dx x

10
Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
d
1) sinh x = cosh x
dx
d
2) cosh x = sinh x
dx
d
3) tanh x = sech2 x
dx
d
4) coth x = −csch2 x
dx
d
5) sech x = −sech x tanh x
dx
d
6) csch x = −csch x coth x
dx

Higher Order Derivatives

If f is a differentiable function, then its derivative f 0 is also a function, so f 0 may have a derivative of its
00 00 0 0


own, denoted by f . f = (f ) .

The function f 00 is called the second derivative of f because it is the derivative of the derivative of f .

If y = f (x), the notations of the second derivative of f are as follows:

d2 y d2 f d2
y 00 = f 00 (x) = = = f (x) = Dx2 y = Dx2 f (x)
dx2 dx2 dx2
d2
 
d d
Note that f (x) = 2 f (x).
dx dx dx
The third derivative of f is the derivative of the second derivative of f and it is denoted by f 000 .
f 000 = (f 00 )0 .

If y = f (x), then alternative notations for the third derivative of f are

d3 y d3 f d3
y 000 = f 000 (x) = = = f (x) = Dx3 y = Dx3 f (x)
dx3 dx3 dx3
Derivatives of order greater than 3 are defined similarly. In general, the nth derivative of f where n ∈ N,
n ≥ 2, is denoted by the derivative of the (n − 1)th derivative of f and it is denoted by f (n) .

0 
f (n) = f (n−1) , f (3) = f 000 , f (2) = f 00 , f (1) = f 0 .

If y = f (x), then alternative notations for the nth derivative of f are

dn y dn f dn
y (n) = f (n) (x) = = = f (x) = Dxn y = Dxn f (x)
dxn dxn dxn
 n−1
dn

d d
Note that f (x) = f (x), n ∈ N, n ≥ 2.
dx dxn−1 dxn

11
 1 (−1)n n!
Example. Let f (x) = . Show that f (n) (x) = for every n ∈ N.
1+x (1 + x)n+1
d −1
Solution. f 0 (x) = (1 + x)−1 =


dx (1 + x)2
(−1)n n!
So, f (n) (x) = is correct for n = 1.
(1 + x)n+1
(−1)n n! k
(k) (x) = (−1) k! , where k is
Assume that the equation f (n) (x) = is correct for n = k, i.e., f
(1 + x)n+1 (1 + x)k+1
some positive integer.

(−1)k k! k+1 (k + 1)!

 
d d k k! (−k − 1)(1 + x)−k−2 = (−1)
f (k+1) (x) (k)


= f (x) = = (−1) .
dx dx (1 + x)k+1 (1 + x)k+2
(−1)n n!
Thus, f (n) (x) = for every n ∈ N by induction.
(1 + x)n+1
Example. Let f (x) = e2x sin(3x). Find f 000 (x) and f 000 (0).

Solution. f 0 (x) = 2e2x sin(3x) + 3e2x cos(3x)

f 00 (x) = 4e2x sin(3x) + 6e2x cos(3x) + 6e2x cos(3x) − 9e2x sin(3x) = −5e2x sin(3x) + 12e2x cos(3x)

f 000 (x) = −10e2x sin(3x) − 15e2x cos(3x) + 24e2x cos(3x) − 36e2x sin(3x) = −46e2x sin(3x) + 9e2x cos(3x)

f 000 (0) = 9e0 cos 0 = 9.

Example. Find the derivative of each of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = sin cos2 x

Solution. f 0 (x) = cos cos2 x 2 cos x(− sin x) = − sin(2x) cos cos2 x

√
(b) f (x) = ln x + e4x
 
1 1
Solution. f 0 (x) = √ + 4e4x
2 ln x + e4x x
√
(c) f (x) = 2tan( x)

√
√ √ 1 √ sec2 ( x)
Solution. f 0 (x) = 2tan( x) · ln 2 · sec2 ( x) · √ = ln 2 · 2tan( x)−1 · √
2 x x
(d) f (x) = log5 sec2 (6x)

1 12
Solution. f 0 (x) = · 2 sec(6x) · sec(6x) tan(6x) · 6 = tan(6x)
sec2 (6x) · ln 5 ln 5
sin3 (4x2 )
(e) f (x) =
2x
3 sin2 (4x2 ) cos(4x2 )8x · 2x − sin3 (4x2 ) · 2 48x2 sin2 (4x2 ) cos(4x2 ) − 2 sin3 (4x2 )
Solution. f 0 (x) = =
4x2 4x2

12
 (ln x)4 + e5x+1
(f ) f (x) =
ln 2
4(ln x)3
   
0 1 3 1 5x+1 1 5x+1
Solution. f (x) = 4(ln x) · + e ·5 = + 5e
ln 2 x ln 2 x
p
(g) f (x) = 3 sin(ex + cot(2x))
1
Solution. f 0 (x) = (sin(ex + cot(2x)))−2/3 cos(ex + cot(2x))(ex − 2csc2 (2x))
3
 
−x 1
(h) f (x) = cosh(4 ) + sinh
x4
     
0 −x −x 1 1 −5

−x −x 4 1
Solution. f (x) = sinh(4 )4 ln + cosh 4
−4x = − ln 4 · sinh(4 )4 − 5 cosh
4 x x x4
d
Example. Verify that tan x = sec2 x.
dx
 
d d sin x cos x · cos x − sin x · (− sin x) 1
Solution. tan x = = 2
= = sec2 x
dx dx cos x cos x cos2 x

Implicit Differentiation
Suppose that we have an equation of the form F (x, y) = 0, where F (x, y) denotes an expression involving
the two variables x and y, where y is a function of x (y depends on x).

Sometimes we can solve F (x, y) = 0 for y and so find explicit formulas for one or more functions y = f (x)
defined by the equation. Usually, however, we are not able to solve the equation F (x, y) = 0 for y. We can
still regard the equation F (x, y) = 0 as defining y as one or more functions of x implicitly even if we can
dy
not solve for these functions explicitly. Moreover, the derivative can be found by using the implicit dif-
dx
ferentiation technique. The idea of implicit differentiate (both sides) of the given equation with respect
 dy 
to x, regarding y as a function of x having derivative y 0 or .
dx
dy
Example. Find if y 2 = x.
dx
Solution.
√ dy 1
1st method: If y ≥ 0, then y = x. So, = √ for x > 0.
dx 2 x
√ dy −1
If y < 0, then y = − x. So, = √ for x > 0.
dx 2 x
dy 1
In either case we have = for y 6= 0.
dx 2y
2nd method: (Using implicit differentiation)

d 2 d
(y ) = (x)
dx dx
dy dy 1
2y = 1. Thus, = for y 6= 0.
dx dx 2y

13
Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the circle x2 + y 2 = 25 at the point (3, −4).

Solution.

1st method:
√
Since the point (3, −4) belongs to the lower half part of the circle x2 + y 2 = 25, we take y = − 25 − x2 .

dy −1 x
= √ (−2x) = √
dx 2 25 − x2 25 − x2
The slope of the tangent line is
dy 3 3
m= =√ =
dx x=3 25 − 3 2 4
An equation of the tangent line is
3
y − (−4) = (x − 3)
4
or
3 25
y = x−
4 4
2nd method: (Using implicit differentiation)

d 2 d
(x + y 2 ) = (25)
dx dx
dy
2x + 2y =0
dx
dy −2x −x
= =
dx 2y y
The slope of the tangent line is

dy −3 3
m= = =
dx (x,y)=(3,−4) −4 4
An equation of the tangent line is
3
y − (−4) = (x − 3)
4
or
3 25
y = x−
4 4
dy 2
Example. Find if y sin x + e2y = x3 + cos y.
dx
Solution.

d  2
 d
y sin x + e2y = x3 + cos y


dx dx
dy 2 dy dy
· sin x + y cos x + e2y · 4y · = 3x2 − sin y ·
dx dx dx

14
dy  2

sin x + 4ye2y + sin y = 3x2 − y cos x
dx
dy 3x2 − y cos x
Thus, =
dx sin x + 4ye2y2 + sin y
Example. Find y 00 if xy + y 2 = 2x.

Solution.

d d
xy + y 2 =


(2x)
dx dx
dy dy
1·y+x + 2y =2
dx dx
dy
y+ (x + 2y) = 2
dx
dy 2−y
=
dx x + 2y

d2 y
   
d dy 2−y
d
= =
dx2 dx dx dx
x + 2y
 
dy dy
− dx (x + 2y) − (2 − y) 1 + 2
dx
=
(x + 2y)2
 
2−y 2−y
− (x + 2y) − (2 − y) 1 + 2 ·
x + 2y x + 2y
=
(x + 2y)2
x + 2y + 4 − 2y
y − 2 + (y − 2) ·
x + 2y
=
(x + 2y)2
 
x+4
(y − 2) 1 +
x + 2y
=
(x + 2y)2
(y − 2)(x + 2y + x + 4)
=
(x + 2y)3
(y − 2)(2x + 2y + 4)
=
(x + 2y)3
2xy + 2y 2 + 4y − 4x − 4y − 8
=
(x + 2y)3
2(xy + y 2 − 2x) − 8
=
(x + 2y)3
−8
=
(x + 2y)3

15
Logarithmic Differentiation
Suppose that y = f (x), where f is a differentiable function. If f (x) contains products or quotients of many

h(x)
factors or if f (x) = g(x) for some functions g and h with g(x) > 0, then logarithmic differentiation
0 dy
is useful for finding f (x) or equivalently . The steps in logarithmic differentiation are as follows:
dx
1) If f (x) > 0 for all values of x, then take natural logarithms of both sides of the equation y = f (x) and
use the properties of logarithm to simplify.

If f (x) < 0 for some values of x, then take natural logarithms of both sides of the equation |y| = |f (x)| and
use the properties of logarithm to simplify.

2) Differentiate implicitly with respect to x.

dy
3) Solve the resulting equation for .
dx
Example. Find the derivative of the function f (x) = xx for x > 0.

Solution.

1st method: Let y = xx . Then, ln y = ln(xx ) = x ln x.

d d
ln y = (x ln x)
dx dx
1 dy 1
· = ln x + x · = ln x + 1
y dx x
dy
= y(ln x + 1) = xx (ln x + 1)
dx
2nd method:
 
d x d x ln x x ln x 1
(x ) = (e )=e 1 · ln x + x · = xx (ln x + 1)
dx dx x
(x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
Example. Let f (x) = . Find f 0 (−2).
x+4
Solution.

|x + 1| · |x + 2| · |x + 3|
|f (x)| =
|x + 4|
ln |f (x)| = ln |x + 1| + ln |x + 2| + ln |x + 3| − ln |x + 4|

Differentiating both sides of the last equation with respect to x we obtain

f 0 (x) 1 1 1 1
= + + −
f (x) x+1 x+2 x+3 x+4
 
0 1 1 1 1
f (x) = f (x) + + −
x+1 x+2 x+3 x+4
(x + 2)(x + 3) (x + 1)(x + 3) (x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
f 0 (x) = + + −
x+4 x+4 x+4 (x + 4)2

16
 (−1) · 1 −1
f 0 (−2) = 0 + +0−0=
2 2

cos x
Example. Find f 0 (x), if f (x) = ln x for x > 1.

Solution.

ln f (x) = cos x · ln(ln x)

f 0 (x) 1 1
= − sin x · ln(ln x) + cos x · ·
f (x) ln x x
 cos x 
f 0 (x) = (ln x)cos x − sin x · ln(ln x) +
x ln x
3/4
√
x x2 + 1
Example. Differentiate y = .
(3x + 2)5
Solution.
3 1
ln y = ln x + ln(x2 + 1) − 5 ln(3x + 2)
4 2
y 0 31 1 2x 3
= + · 2 −5·
y 4x 2 x +1 3x + 2
 
3 x 15
y0 = y + 2 −
4x x + 1 3x + 2
√
x3/4 x2 + 1 3
 
0 x 15
y = + −
(3x + 2)5 4x x2 + 1 3x + 2

Derivatives of Inverse Functions

Theorem : If f is a one-to-one differentiable function with inverse function f −1 and f 0 f −1 (a) =


6 0, then
−1
the inverse function f is differentiable at a and

0 1
f −1 (a) = .
f 0 (f −1 (a))

0
Example. Let f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 + 7x + 4. Given that f is one-to-one, find f −1 (4).

Solution. f (0) = 4. Therefore, f −1 (4) = 0. f 0 (x) = 6x2 + 6x + 7.

0 1 1 1 1
f −1 (4) = = = = .
f 0 (f −1 (4)) f 0 (0) 6· 02 +6·0+7 7

0
Example. Let f (x) = 4x3 + 3 sin x + 2 cos x. Given that f is one-to-one, find f −1 (2).

Solution. f (0) = 2. Therefore, f −1 (2) = 0. f 0 (x) = 12x2 + 3 cos x − 2 sin x.

0 1 1 1 1
f −1 (2) = = = = .
f 0 (f −1 (2)) f 0 (0) 12 · 02 + 3 cos 0 − 2 sin 0 3

17

0
Example. Let f (x) = 2x + cos x. Given that f is invertible, find f −1 (π).
π  π π  π
Solution. f = 2 · + cos = π. Therefore, f −1 (π) = .
2 2 2 2
f 0 (x) = 2 − sin x.

0 1 1 1 1
f −1 (π) = = π  = π  = = 1.
f 0 (f −1 (π)) f0 2 − sin 2−1
2 2

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

d 1
1) arcsin x = √
dx 1 − x2
d 1
2) arccos x = − √
dx 1 − x2
d 1
3) arctan x =
dx 1 + x2
d 1
4) arccot x = −
dx 1 + x2
d 1
5) arcsec x = √
dx |x| x2 − 1
d 1
6) arccsc x = − √
dx |x| x2 − 1
Example. Find the domain and the derivative of each of the following functions:
√
(a) f (x) = x arctan x.

(b) f (x) = arcsin(2x + 1) + x2 arccos(e2x ).

Solution.
√
(a) f (x) = x arctan x. The domain of f is [0, ∞).
√
√ 1 1 √ x
f 0 (x) = arctan x + x · √ 2 · √ = arctan x +
1 + ( x) 2 x 2 (1 + x)
(b) f (x) = arcsin(2x + 1) + x2 arccos(e2x ).

−1 ≤ 2x + 1 ≤ 1 ⇐⇒ −2 ≤ 2x ≤ 0 ⇐⇒ −1 ≤ x ≤ 0.

−1 ≤ e2x ≤ 1 ⇐⇒ 0 < e2x ≤ 1 ⇐⇒ 2x ≤ ln 1 = 0 ⇐⇒ x ≤ 0.

[−1, 0] ∩ (−∞, 0] = [−1, 0]

The domain of f is [−1, 0].

18
 1 −1
f 0 (x) = q · 2 + 2x arccos(e2x ) + x2 · q · 2e2x
2 2
1 − (2x + 1) 1 − (e2x )
2 2x2 e2x
= √ + 2x arccos(e2x ) − √
−4x2 − 4x 1 − e4x
1 2x2 e2x
= √ + 2x arccos(e2x ) − √
−x2 − x 1 − e4x

Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

d 1
1) sinh−1 x = √
dx 1 + x2
d 1
2) cosh−1 x = √
dx 2
x −1
d 1
3) tanh−1 x =
dx 1 − x2
d 1
4) coth−1 x =
dx 1 − x2
d 1
5) sech−1 x = − √
dx x 1 − x2
d 1
6) csch−1 x = − √
dx |x| x2 + 1
Remark: The formulas for the derivatives of tanh−1 x and coth−1 x appear to be identical. But the domains
of these functions have no numbers in common: tanh−1 x is defined for |x| < 1, whereas coth−1 x is defined
for |x| > 1.

d 1
Example. Prove that sinh−1 x = √ .
dx 1 + x2
Solution.

1st method: Let y = sinh−1 x. Then sinh y = x. If we differentiate this equation implicitly with respect
to x, we get

dy
cosh y = 1.
dx
p
Since cosh2 y − sinh2 y = 1 and cosh y ≥ 0, we have cosh y = 1 + sinh2 y, so

dy 1 1 1
= =p =√ .
dx cosh y 2
1 + sinh y 1 + x2

19
  √ 
2nd method: Since sinh−1 x = ln x + x2 + 1 , we have

d d  p 
sinh−1 x = ln x + x2 + 1
dx dx
1 d  p 
= √ x + x2 + 1
x + x2 + 1 dx
 
1 x
= √ 1+ √
x + x2 + 1 x2 + 1
√
x2 + 1 + x
=  √ √
x + x2 + 1 x2 + 1
1
= √ .
x2 +1
d
Example. Find tanh−1 (sin x).
dx
Solution. Using the Chain Rule, we have

d 1 d cos x 1
tanh−1 (sin x) = sin x = = = sec x
dx 1 − (sin x)2 dx cos2 x cos x

Derivatives of Parametric Functions

Sometimes the equation of a curve is not given in the form y = f (x) but given in parametric form as x = g(t),
y = h(t), where g and h are functions defined on an interval I and t ∈ I is a real parameter. In the case that
the functions g and h are both differentiable, we have
dy
dy h0 (t) ẏ
= dt = 0 =
dx dx g (t) ẋ
dt
dy
Example. Find if x = 5t and y = t2 − 6t + 1.
dx
dx dy dy dy/dt 2t − 6
Solution. = 5 and = 2t − 6. = = .
dt dt dx dx/dt 5
dy
Example. If x = t3 + 1 and y = t2 , calculate at t = 2.
dx
dx dy
Solution. = 3t2 and = 2t.
dt dt
dy dy/dt 2t 2
= = 2 = .
dx dx/dt 3t 3t
dy 2 2 1
Therefore = = = .
dx t=2 3t t=2 3 · 2 3
dy
Example. Find the value of at t = 1 if x = tet , y = t + et .
dx
dx dy
Solution. = et + tet = et (1 + t) and = 1 + et .
dt dt
dy dy/dt 1 + et
= = t .
dx dx/dt e (1 + t)

20
 dy 1 + et 1+e
Therefore = t = .
dx t=1 e (1 + t) t=1 2e
d2 y
   
d dy d ẏ
Note. = = .
dx2 dx dx dx ẋ
ẏ
Since is a function of t, we can write
ẋ
       
d dy d dy dt d ẏ 1 ẋÿ − ẏẍ 1 ẋÿ − ẏẍ
= = = · = .
dx dx dt dx dx dt ẋ dx (ẋ)2 ẋ (ẋ)3
dt
d2 y ẋÿ − ẏẍ
Hence, = .
dx2 (ẋ)3
d2 y
Example. Let x = a cos t and y = b sin t where a, b > 0 . Evaluate .
dx2
dx dy
Solution. = −a sin t and = b cos t.
dt dt
dy dy/dt b cos t
= = .
dx dx/dt −a sin t

d2 y
     
d dy d b cos t d b cos t dt
= = =
dx2 dx dx dx −a sin t dt −a sin t dx
b sin t · a sin t − (−b cos t) · a cos t 1 −ba
= 2
· =
(a sin t) −a sin t (a sin t)3

d2 y
Example. Let x = 2t + 3 and y = 3t2 − t. Calculate .
dx2
dx dy
Solution. = 2 and = 6t − 1.
dt dt
dy dy/dt 6t − 1
= = .
dx dx/dt 2

d2 y
   
d dy d 6t − 1 dt 1 3
2
= = =3· =
dx dx dx dt 2 dx 2 2
π
Example. Let x = t sin t and y = t cos t. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at t = .
4
dy √  √ 
2 π − 2
dy 1 · cos t + t · (− sin t) 2 + 4 2 4−π
Solution. = dt = = √ √ = .
dx t= π4 dx t= π4 1 sin t + t · cos t t= π4 2 π 2 4+π
2 + 4 · 2
dt
4−π
The slope of the tangent line is m = .
4+π
√ √
π π 2 π 2
At t = , we have x = and y = .
4 8 8 √ ! √
4−π π 2 π 2
An equation of the tangent line is y = x− + .
4+π 8 8

21
Applications of Differentiation

Theorem (Rolle’s Theorem) : Let a and b be real numbers such that b > a. Suppose that f is a
function that satisfies the following three hypotheses:

(i) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b],

(ii) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b),

(iii) f (a) = f (b).

Then, there exists a number c in the open interval (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
 π
Example. Show that the equation sin x = 2x − 1 has a unique (exactly one) solution in the interval 0, .
2
Solution. Let f (x) = sin x − 2x + 1.
h πi
The function f is continuous on 0, because both sin x and −2x + 1 are continuous functions.
2
 π
Moreover, f is differentiable on 0, .
2
f (0) = sin 0 − 2 · 0 + 1 = 1 > 0.
π  π  π
f = sin − 2 · + 1 = 2 − π < 0.
2 2 2
 π
Therefore, according to the Intermediate Value Theorem there exist a number c ∈ 0, such that f (c) = 0.
2
 π
So the equation sin x = 2x − 1 has a solution in the interval 0, .
2
 π
Assume that the equation sin x = 2x − 1 has two different solutions a and b in the interval 0, such that
2
b > a. Then f (a) = f (b) = 0.

Since f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), there exists a number γ in (a, b) such that f 0 (γ) = 0
by the Rolle’s Theorem.
 π
f 0 (x) = cos x − 2. Since cos x ≤ 1 we have f 0 (x) ≤ 1 − 2 = −1 for all x in 0, .
2
 π
This is a contradiction. Therefore, the equation sin x = 2x − 1 has a unique solution in the interval 0, .
2

22
Theorem (The Mean Value Theorem) : Let a and b be real numbers such that b > a. Suppose that
f is a function that satisfies the following hypotheses:

(i) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b],

(ii) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).

f (b) − f (a)
Then, there exists a number c in the open interval (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = (or equivalently,
b−a
f (b) − f (a) = f 0 (c)(b − a)).

Theorem : If f : (a, b) → R is a differentiable function such that f 0 (x) = 0 for all x in (a, b), then f is
constant on (a, b).

Corollary : If f : (a, b) → R and g : (a, b) → R are differentiable functions such that f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) for
all x in (a, b), then f − g is constant on (a, b), i.e., f (x) = g(x) + c for all x in (a, b), where c is a real constant.

Example. Show that sin x < x for all x > 0.

Solution. If x ≥ π, then sin x ≤ 1 < π ≤ x.

Let x be a fixed real number such that 0 < x < π.

Since the sine function is continuous and differentiable everywhere on R, by the Mean Value Theorem, there
exists a number c ∈ (0, x) such that

sin x − sin 0 d
= sin x x=c
= cos c < 1.
x−0 dx

sin x
Thus, < 1.
x
So, sin x < x also for 0 < x < π.

Consequently, sin x < x for all x > 0.

√ x
Example. Show that 1+x<1+ for x > 0.
2
√ x
Solution. Let us define the function f (x) = 1 + x − − 1. Suppose that x is a positive number. f
2
is continuous on [0, x] and differentiable on (0, x). According to the Mean Value Theorem, there exists a
f (x) − f (0)
number c ∈ (0, x) such that = f 0 (c).
x−0
1 1 √ 1 1
f 0 (c) = √ − < 0 because 1 + c > 1 so that √ < .
2 1+c 2 2 1+c 2
√ x
So f (x) < 0. Therefore, 1 + x < 1 + for all x > 0.
2

23
Theorem (The Generalized Mean Value Theorem) : If f and g are functions which are both
continuous on the interval [a, b] and both differentiable on the interval (a, b), then there exists a number c
in (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a) f 0 (c)
= 0 .
g(b) − g(a) g (c)

Example. Let the functions f (x) = x3 and g(x) = x2 + 4x be given. Find all possible values of the real
number c satisfying the Generalized Mean Value Theorem for the functions f and g on the closed interval
[−1, 1].

Solution. The functions f (x) = x3 and g(x) = x2 + 4x are continuous on [−1, 1] and differentiable on
(−1, 1) since they are polynomials. According to the Generalized Mean Value Theorem,

f (1) − f (−1) f 0 (c)

= 0
g(1) − g(−1) g (c)

for some real number c in (−1, 1).

f (1) − f (−1) 1 − (−1) 1 f 0 (c) 3c2

= = , =
g(1) − g(−1) 5 − (−3) 4 g 0 (c) 2c + 4
3c2 1
Thus, =
2c + 4 4
2 2 1
Therefore, 12c − 2c − 4 = 0 or (3c − 2)(2c + 1) = 0 so that c = or c = − , both of which belong to the
3 2
interval (−1, 1).
2 1
All possible values of c are and − .
3 2

24
Exercises

1. Find the derivative of each of the following functions.

a. f (x) = (2x − 3)4 (x2 + x + 1)5

3
x2 + 1

b. f (x) =
x2 − 1
√
c. f (x) = ln(ln( x))

1 − cosh x
d. f (x) =
1 + cosh x
e2x − x3
e. f (x) = x2
e −1
e2x − x3
f. f (x) = x2
e −1
 √ 
g. f (x) = arctan x − x2 + 1
√
h. f (x) = x2 − 1 · sec−1 x

i. f (x) = x tanh(sin2 (2x))

j. f (x) = (sin x)ln x

e−x cos2 x
k. f (x) =
(x + 1)(x + 2)
2. Suppose that f is a differentiable function defined on R such that f (1) = 2, f (2) = 3, f 0 (1) = 4, f 0 (2) = 5,
and f 0 (3) = 6. If g(x) = f (xf (xf (x))), find g 0 (1).

3. Let f (x) = xe−x . Find f (1000) (x).

4. Show that the function y = e2x (2 cos(3x) − sin(3x)) satisfies the equation y 00 − 4y 0 + y = 0.

x2 y 2
5. Find an equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola − 2 = 1 at the point (x0 , y0 ).
a2 b
6. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = sin(4x) at the point (0, 0).

7. If x2 + xy + y 3 = 1, find the value of y 000 at the point where x = 1.

25
 dy
8. Find if arctan(x2 y) = x + xy 2 .
dx
9. Find all points on the curve x2 y 2 + xy = 2 where the slope of the tangent line is −1.

10. Find equations of the tangent line and normal line to the curve x2 + xy + 2y 3 = 4 at the point (−2, 1).

0
11. Let f (x) = arctan x + ex . Given that f is one-to-one, find f −1 (1).

12. Let f : R → R be a differentiable function such 3 ≤ f 0 (x) ≤ 5. Show that 18 ≤ f (8) − f (2) ≤ 30.

13. Prove that | sin a − sin b| ≤ |a − b| for all a, b ∈ R.

26
Bibliography

[1] Robert A. Adams, Christopher Essex. Calculus: A Complete Course, Pearson, Canada, 2018.

[2] S.K. Chung, Understanding Basic Calculus, lecture notes, Department of Mathematics, University of
Hong Kong.

[3] Paul Dawkins, Calculus I, Paul’s Online Notes. Retrieved from [Link]

[4] James Stewart, Calculus: Metric Version, 8th Edition, Cengage Learning, 2015.

27