Civil Mentors

Environmental Engineering

Md. Nur Alam Riad

Reference Books:

1. Water Supply and Sanitation

 M.F Ahmed
 [Link]
2. A Text book of Water
Supply Engineering
 [Link]

3. Water Supply and

Sanitary Engineering
 Rangwala
Water quality
parameters:

Water quality
parameters are
three types:

Physical Biological
Chemical
parameters parameters
parameters
 Physical
Parameters:

Colour Taste
and Temperature Suspended
odour Turbidity solids
 Color
Impact:

Consumers find taste and odour aesthetically

displeasing for obvious reasons. It is unpleasant for
drinking and bad for health

Measurement:

Measurement of taste and odour casing organics

can be made using gas or liquid Chromatography.
As Chromatographic analysis is time consuming
and requires expensive equipment it is not routinely
performed on water samples, but should be done
if problem organics are suspected.
Quantitative tests that employ the human senses
of taste and smell can be used for this purpose.
An example of this test is the threshold odour
number (TON).

• Varying amounts of odourous water are poured

into containers and diluted with enough odour
free distilled water to make a 200 ml mixture

• An assembled panel of five or ten noses is used

to determine in which the odour is just barely
detectable to the sense of smell. For public
water supply the threshold water number
should not be more than 3
• The TON of that sample is then calculated
using the formula

𝐴+𝐵
𝑇𝑂𝑁 =
𝐴

Where,

A= volume of odourous water

B= Volume of odourfree water required to
produce a 200 ml mixture
 Turbidity

The colloidal materials present in water interferes

with passage of light and thus imparts turbidity to
the water.

Source:

I. Erosion of colloidal material such as clay, silt,

rock fragments and metal oxides from the soil.
II. Vegetables fibers and microorganisms may
also contribute to the turbidity.
III. Household and industrial waste water may
contain a wide variety of turbidity producing
material.
iv. Soaps, detergents and emulsifying agents
produce stable colloids that result turbidity

Impact:

• The cloudy appearance developed in water

due to turbidity is aesthetically unattractive and
it may also be harmful to the consumers.
• It also disturbs the disinfection process because
the solids may partially shield the organisms
from the disinfection
 Measurement:
Turbidity is measured by photo metrically by determining the
percentage of light of a given intensity that is either absorbed or
scattered. The original measuring apparatus, called a Jackson
Turbidity Meter. 1 JTU being equal to the turbidity produced by 1 mg
𝑆𝑖𝑂2 in IL of distilled water.

Formaizin, a chemical compound, provides more reproducible standards

than 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 and has replaced it as a reference. Turbidity meter readings are
now expressed as formazin turbidity units or FTUs. The term
neophelometry turbidity units (NTU) is often used to indicate that the test
was run according to the scattering principle
Suspended solids:
Source:

I. Inorganic solids such as clay, silt and other soil

constituents
II. Organic material such as plant, fibers and
biological solids such as algal cells. Bacteria
etc.
III. Industrial waste, domestic waste, oils greases
etc

Measurement:

There are several tests available for measuring

solids. Most are gravimetric tests involving the
mass of residue.
Chemical water quality parameter:

• pH
• Alkalinity
• Acidity
• Total solids
• Hardness
• Chlorides
• Dissolved gases
• Metals
• Nitrates and its compounds
 pH:

The acidity or alkalinity of water is measured in

terms of its pH value or H-ion concentration
Impact:

• For potable water, the pH value should be between

6.5 and 8.5 and it is found that if this range is
maintained, there is no direct effect on health of
human being.

• If pH value of water is below 4, it will produce a sour

taste and if it is more than 8.5 it will impart a bitter
taste.
•
• The higher value of pH induces the formation of
Trihalomethane which are responsible for casing
cancer in human beings

• The lower value of pH starts corrosion in pipes and

thereby the toxic metals like Zn, Pb, Cu are
released.
Measurement:

There are two methods for measurement

1. Electrometric method
2. Colorimetric method

1. Electrometric method:

In this method the potentiometer is used to

measure the electrical pressure exerted by
positivity charged H-ions. The pH value then
correspondingly expressed.
ii) Colourimetric method:

In this method the chemical reagents or

indicators are added in water and the colour
produces id compared with standard colours
of known pH value
Problem 1:

A factory discharges 50 𝑚3 /day of waste having pH

=11. If the waste contains KOH only, find out the
quantity of KOH in kg/day

Solution:

pH + pOH = 14

11 + pOH = 14

pOH = 14-11 = 3
Thus the concentration of hydroxyl ion in the given
water is 10−3 moles/litre i.e. [𝑂𝐻 − ] = 10−3 moles/litre
The molecular weight of KOH in 1 liter solution
works out to

(39 + 16 + 1) = 56 g

KOH in g/litre = 56 x 10−3

KOH in kg/litre = 56 x 10−6

Now, Discharge = Q = 50 𝑚3 /day = 50 x 103

litres/day

Quantity of KOH in given waste

= (56 x 10−6 x 50 x 103 ) kg/day = 2.80 kg/day
2) Alkalinity:

Alkalinity is defined by as the quantity of ions on

water that will react to neutralize hydrogen ions.
Alkalinity is thus a measure of the ability of water
to neutralize acids.

Source:

The alkalinity is due to the presence of

bicarbonate (HC 𝑂3− ), carbonate (C 𝑂3−− ) and
hydroxide (𝑂𝐻 − )
 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⇄ 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3∗

𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3∗ ⇄ 𝐻 + + 𝐻𝐶𝑂3−

𝐻𝐶𝑂3− ⇄ 𝐻 + + 𝐶𝑂32−

𝐶𝑂32− + 𝐻2 𝑂 ⇄ 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− + 𝑂𝐻 −
Impact:

• In large quantities, alkalinity imparts bitter taste to

water.

• The principle objection to alkaline water, however is

the reactions that can occur between alkalinity
and certain cations in the water. The resultant
precipitate can foul pipes and other water systems
appurtenances.
Measurement:

The alkalinity is measured by volumetric

analysis. The various types of indicators are
available for this purpose. The commonly
adopted two indicators are-

1) Phenolphthalein
2) Methyl orange
1) Phenolphthalein :

Pink above pH 8.2 and

Colourless below pH 8.2

2) Methyl orange:

Red below pH 4.5 and

Yellow-orange above pH 4.5
Alkalinity on pH scale is represented as follows:

• The range of total alkalinity is 4.5 to 14

• The range of bicarbonate i.e. 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− alkalinity is

from 4.5 to 8.2

• The range of carbonate i.e. 𝐶𝑂3− alkalinity is from

8.2 to 10

• The range 0 to 4.5 indicates no alkalinity

P = Phenolphthalein
M= Methyl orange
Problem: From the following data of volumetric
analysis, calculate the hydroxide, carbonate and
bicarbonate alkalinities:

Sample Total ml of titrant to reach end

100 ml point

Phenolphthalin Mythyl orange

A 10 15.5

B 14.4 38.6

C 8.2 8.4

D 0 12.7
Solution:

Sample A:

10 ∗1000
P= = 100
100

15.5 ∗1000
T= =155
100

0.5 T = 77.5

As P > 0.5 T, 𝑂𝐻 − alkalinity = 2P-T= 200-155 = 45

C𝑂3−− alkalinity = 2(T-P) = 2(155-100) = 110

𝐻𝐶𝑂3− alkalinity = 0
Sample B:

14.4 ∗1000
P= = 144
100

38.6 ∗1000
T= = 386
100

0.5 T = 193

As P < 0.5 T, 𝑂𝐻 − alkalinity = 0

C𝑂3−− alkalinity = 2P = 288

𝐻𝐶𝑂3− alkalinity = T-2P = (386-288) = 98

Sample C:

8.2 ∗1000
P= = 82
100

8.4∗1000
T= = 84
100

0.5 T = 42

As P > 0.5 T, 𝑂𝐻 − alkalinity = 2P-T = 164-84 = 80

C𝑂3−− alkalinity = 2(T-P) = 2(84-82) = 4

𝐻𝐶𝑂3− alkalinity = 0
Sample D:

P=0

12.7∗1000
T= = 127
100

As P = 0, 𝑂𝐻 − alkalinity = 0

C𝑂3−− alkalinity = 0

𝐻𝐶𝑂3− alkalinity = T = 127

3) Acidity:

The term acidity with reference to the water and

waste water is defined as the capacity of
substances contained in the water to take up
hydroxyl ions ( 𝑂𝐻 − ) to reach a defined pH value (0
to 8.2)

The acidity are the following two types:

(i) Carbon dioxide acidity

(ii) Mineral acidity
(i) Carbon dioxide Acidity:

This acidity is due to the presence of 𝐶𝑂2 in ground

water and surface water

(ii) Mineral Acidity:

The mineral acidity is due to the presence of HCl,

𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 , 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 and strong organic acids

Measurement:

The mineral acidity is determined by titrating or

neutralizing sample with strong base NaOH to pH 4.3.
The carbon dioxide acidity in the sample is calculated
by neutralizing completely by continuing the titration
till pH of 8.2 is reached.
The amount of acidity is expressed in terms of
𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑂3 , Then

Total acidity (as 𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑂3 ) = mineral acidity + 𝐶𝑂2

acidity

Impact:

(i) It affects the aquatic life

(ii) It affects the biological treatment of sewage
(iii) It corrodes pipes
(iv) It interferes in the treatment of water as in case
of water softening
(v) The water having acidity more than 50 mg/l
can not be used for R. C. C. construction
4) Total Dissolved Solids:

The material remaining in the water after filtration

for the suspended solids analysis is considered to be
dissolved

Total solids = Total dissolved solids + Total

Suspended solids

Sources:

(i) Dissolved material results from the solvent action

of water on solids, liquids, and gases
(ii) Materials from decay products of vegetation,
from the organic chemicals and from the
organic gases are common organic dissolved
constituents of water.
Impact:

(i) Dissolved minerals, gases and organic

constituents may produce aesthetically
displeasing colour, test and odour

(i) Some chemicals may be toxic, and some of

the dissolved organic constituents have been
shown to be carcinogenic

In general water with a total solid content of less

than 500 mg/l are most desirable for such
purposes. Water with a higher solids content
have a laxative and sometimes the reverse
effect upon people.
Depending on the TDS water is often classed
as follows:

Excellent TDS < 300 mg/l

Good 300-600 mg/l
Fair 600-900 mg/l
Poor 900-1200 mg/l
Unacceptable 1200 mg/l
(5) Hardness:

The term hardness is defined as the ability of the

water to cause precipitation of insoluble calcium
and magnesium salts of higher fatty acids from
soap.

Source:

Hardness is two types:

(i) Temporary hardness (Carbonate hardness)
(ii) Permanent hardness (Non Carbonate
hardness)
Temporary hardness is mainly due to the
presence of bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium. It can be removed by boiling or by
adding lime to the water.

The permanent hardness is due to the presence

of sulphates, chlorides, and nitrates of calcium
and magnesium. It can not be removed simply by
boiling the water
Impact:

(i) Soap is more consumed due to hardness

of water
(ii) Boiler scale, the result of the carbonate
hardness precipitate may cause
considerable economic loss
(iii) Corrosion may occur.
Measurement:

Hardness can be measured by using

spectrophotometric techniques or chemical
titration to determine the quantity of calcium and
magnesium in a given sample. Hardness can be
measured directly by titration with ethylenediamine
tetra acetic acid (EDTA) using eriochrome black T
(EBT) as an indicator. The EBT reacts with the
divalent metallic cations, forming a complex that is
red in colour. The EDTA replaces the EBT in the
complex, and when the replacement is complete,
the solution changes from red to blue. If 0.01 M
EDTA is used 1.0 ml of the titrant measures 1.0 mg of
hardness as 𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑂3
Standard Value:

Soft < 50 mg/L as 𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑂3

Moderately Hard 50-150 mg/L as 𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑂3
Hard 150-300 mg/L as 𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑂3
Very Hard > 300 mg/L as 𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑂3

The public health service standards

recommended a maximum of 500 mg/L of
hardness in drinking water.
Total Hardness = Carbonate Hardness or alkalinity
+ Non-carbonate hardness

Or T.H = C.H. + N.C.H

Following two rules should be remembered in this

connection

1. When alkalinity < T.H then

C.H = Alkalinity

2. When alkalinity > T.H. then

C.H = T.H
Hardness in mg/l as 𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑂3 =
𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒕.𝒐𝒇𝑪𝒂 𝑪𝑶𝟑
𝑴 (mg/l) x
++
++
𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒕.𝒐𝒇𝑴

Where M represents any ion or radical

𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
Now, Equivalent weight =
𝑿

Where X = for acids, the number of moles of 𝐻 ++

obtainable from 1 mole acid

X = for bases, the number of moles of 𝐻 ++

with which 1 mole of base will react

(40+12+3 ∗16)
Thus the equivalent weight of 𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑂3 = =50
2
The equivalent weights of 𝐶𝑎++ , 𝑀𝑔 ++ , 𝑆𝑟 ++ will
be respectively as follows

Ca = 40/2 = 20
Mg = 24.4/2 = 12.2
Sr = 87.6/ 2 = 43.8
For measuring alkalinity, the reading of only 𝐶𝑂3−−
or 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− will be required and expressed as
percentage, they can be found out found out
from the following relations

Total Alkalinity as 𝐻𝐶𝑂3 in mg/L = Bicarbonate

Alkalinity x 1.22

Total Alkalinity as 𝐶𝑂3 in mg/L = Carbonate

Alkalinity x 0.60

Molecular wt of 𝐻𝐶𝑂3 = (1+12+3*16) =61

Molecular wt of 𝐶𝑂3 = 12+3*16 = 60

Problem 5.1: The analysis of water from a bore
shows the following results in mg/l

Ca = 60, Mg = 48, Na = 103.5 K =19.5

𝐻𝐶𝑂3 = 224, 𝑆𝑂4 =220.8 Cl = 78.1

Find out the total hardness, carbonate hardness

and non carbonate hardness

Solution:

Total Hardness = (60 x 50/20 + 48 x 50/12.2) =

(150 + 196.72) = 346.72 mg/L as 𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑂3
Total alkalinity as 𝐻𝐶𝑂3 in mg/L = Bicarbonate
alkalinity x 1.22

244 = Bicarbonate alkalinity x 1.22

Bicarbonate alkalinity = 244/1.22 = 200 mg/L

In this case alkalinity< T. H.

C.H = Alkalinity = 200 mg/L

Then N.C.H = T.H – C.H

= 346.72 – 200 = 146.72 mg/L
Back washing in Rapid
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