UNIT 2

Hardware Components
Major blocks of a digital computer
A computer is a combination of hardware and software resources
which integrate together and provides various functionalities to the
user. Hardware are the physical components of a computer while
software is the set of programs or instructions that are required by
the hardware to function properly. The basic components of digital
computer are:

[Link] Unit:
The input unit consists of input devices that are attached to the
computer. These devices take input from their user and convert it
into binary language that the computer can understand. Some of
the common input devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner,
etc.
[Link] Processing Unit:
Once the information is entered into the computer by the input
device, the processor processes it. The CPU is called the brain of the
computer because it is the control centre of the computer. CPU
performs the required computation, and then either stores the
output or displays it on the output device.
The CPU has three main component:
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):
The ALU performs mathematical calculations and takes logical
decisions. Arithmetic calculations include addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. Logical decisions involve the
comparison of two data items to see which one is larger or smaller
or equal.
 Control Unit:
The Control unit controls and coordinates the data flow in and out
of the CPU, and also controls all the operations of ALU and also
input/output units. It is also responsible for carrying out all the
instructions stored in the program.
 Memory Unit:
Memory attached to the CPU is used for storage of data and
instructions and is called internal memory. The internal memory is
also called the Primary memory or Main memory. The internal
memory is divided into many storage locations, and each location
can store data or instructions.

3. Output Unit:
The output unit consists of output devices that are attached to the
computer. It converts the binary data coming from the CPU to
human understandable form. The common output devices are
monitor, printer, plotter, etc.

Input devices
Input device are used to feed data or information into a computer
system. They are used to provide input to the computer upon
whose reaction, outputs are generated. The various type of input
devices are keyboard, mouse, light pens, touch panels, etc.
• Keyboard
The keyboard is the most commonly used input device. It contains
various keys for entering letters, numbers and characters. There are
some additional keys for completing various activities. It is generally
available in two different sizes. It is connected to a computer
system with the help of a USB or a Bluetooth device.
The keys on the keyboard are:
Numeric Keys: These keys are used to enter numeric data and
move the cursor. It is typically made up of 17 keys.
Typing Keys: These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and the
number keys (0-9).
Control Keys: The pointer and the screen are controlled by these
keys. It comes with four directional arrow keys. Control keys
include Home, End, Insert, Alternate(Alt), Delete, Control(Ctrl), and
Escape.
Special Keys: Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, NumLock, Tab and Print
Screen are some of the special keys on the keyboard.
Function Keys: The 12 keys from F1 to F12 are on the topmost row
of the keyboard.
• Mouse
A mouse is an input device that allows you to control the
movement of the on-screen cursor by moving the mouse on a flat
surface. The left mouse button can be used to select, open, pick or
move items, while the right mouse button displays additional menu
when clicked. The mouse work on the basic principle that the
movement of device is translated into movement of the cursor.
Following are the mice, which are mostly used:
• Mechanical mouse
• Optical mouse
Mechanical mouse:
It consist of metal or rubber ball on its under side. When the ball is
rolled in any direction, sensors inside the mouse detect the motion
and move the cursor accordingly.
Optical Mouse:
Optical mouse uses a light source, typically a Light Emitting
Diode(LED) and light detector to detect movement relative to the
surface.

• Joystick
A joystick is an input device that is commonly used to control
gaming applications and sometimes, used in graphics applications.
It includes a base and a stick that can be move to the left or right
direction. It can also be rotated in different amounts to handle the
movement of the cursor in a computer. With the help of a lever on
the joystick, the movement of a cursor is controlled. They consist of
extra buttons for additional functionality. As compared to the keys
on a keyboard, it can offer greater control due to its flexible
movements.
• Light Pen
Light Pen (similar to the pen) is a pointing device which is used to
select a displayed item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It
consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.
When its tip is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location
and sends the signals to the CPU.
• Scanner
A scanner is an electrical device that can read and translate text,
images and other materials into a digital signal. This transforms the
documents into a format that computer can use to view and edit
them. A scanner is a device that is used to read and convert
documents such as photographs, posters and images into digital
copies for displaying and editing. Most scanners are connected to
computers using cords that plug into a port that is readily
accessible. Some modern scanners are equipped with Bluetooth
and wireless features.

Output devices
Output devices are the devices, which accepts data from a
computer and translates them into form understandable by users.
Output devices can be categorized into two types:
• Hard copy devices
• Soft copy devices

Hard copy devices:

Hard copy devices are those that give the output in the tangible
form. Printers and Plotters are two common hard copy devices.
Soft copy devices:
Soft copy devices are those that give the output in the intangible
form, e.g. something displayed on a screen. All the computer
monitors comes under this category.
Monitors
Monitors are commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU). They
are the main output device of a computer. It displays the processed
data like text, images, videos on the screen. It forms images from
tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

CRT monitor:
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) are older, heavier, and take up more space
than LCD and LED monitors. This is an outdated technology as well,
which results in higher energy consumption.
Merits:
• Cheaper than other monitors.
• It has better brightness.
• It has better graphics quality.
Demerits:
• It has larger power requirement.
• It is larger and heavier.

LCD monitor:
 LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display and it is the most widely
used monitor in the world.
 It take up less space, less electricity, generate less heat and are
thinner and lighter than the CRT monitors.
Merits:
• It is smaller and lighter.
 • It can be used in portable computing devices.
• It has low power requirements.
• It is better for human eyes due to its low brightness.
Demerits:
• It is expensive than CRT monitor.
• It has low brightness, so it is difficult to view in a brighter
environment.

LED monitor:
An LED (Light Emitting Diode) display is among the newest
technology out there and can be flat or curved. These monitors
consist of light-emitting diodes rather than cold cathode
fluorescent lamps (CCFLs). They are brighter than other monitors.
LED are more common among gamers who play HD games since
they consume less power than LCD monitors.
Merits:
• It is smaller and lighter.
• It has low power requirement.
• It provides better brightness as compared to LCD.
Demerits:
• It is expensive.
• It has low brightness as compared to CRT monitor.
• It is difficult to maintain.
Printer
Printer is the hardcopy output device, which is used to print data
on paper. It is an output device that creates a hard copy of the
processed data or information. Printers are divided into two types:
• Impact Printers
• Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printer
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon,
which is then pressed on the paper. The impact printer uses a
hammer or print head to print the character or images onto the
paper. The hammer or print head strikes or presses an ink ribbon
against the paper to print characters and images.
Impact printers are divided into two types:
• Character Printers
• Line printers

Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a
time. These printers are not in much use these days due to their
low speed and because only the text can be printed. The character
printers are of two types, which are as follows:
 • Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
• Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images
printed by it are in the patterns of dots. A printer has a print head
which contains nine pins. Each pin can be activated independently.
When needle is not activated, then the tip of needle stay in the
head. When pin work, it comes out of the print head.
Advantage:
 Dot Matrix Printers prints output as dots, so it can print any
shape of the character.
 This allows the printer to print special character, charts,
graphs, etc.

Daisy Wheel Printers:

The printer consists of a metallic or plastic disk that stores letters,
numbers or special characters that could be printed using the
printer. In this printer, disk is lying on a wheel and Pins
corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy, that's why
called Daisy wheel printer. The printer's disk will rotate to the
particular character when the user wants to print any character.
The hammer will strike each character into the ribbon, creating an
impression of the character on the printing surface.
Advantage:
 It is more reliable than DMPs and It has better quality.
Line Printers
Line printer which is also known as a bar printer, prints one line at a
time. It is a high-speed impact printer as it can print 500 to 3000
lines per minute. These two types of line printer are:
• Drum Printer
• Chain Printer

Drum Printers:
Drum printer is a line printer that is made up of a rotating drum to
print characters. The drum has circular bands of characters on its
surface. It has a separate hammer for each band of characters.
When you print, the drum rotates, and when the desired character
comes under the hammer, the hammer strikes the ink ribbon
against the paper to print characters. The drum rotates at a very
high speed and characters are printed by activating the appropriate
hammers. Although all the characters are not printed at a time,
they are printed at a very high speed.
Advantages:
 Very high speed

Chain Printers:
Chain printer is a line printer that uses a rotating chain to print
characters. The characters are embossed on the surface of the
chain. The chain rotates horizontally around a set of hammers. For
each print location, one hammer is provided, i.e., the total number
of hammers is equal to the total number of print positions. The
chain rotates at a very high speed and when the desired character
comes at the print location, the corresponding hammer strikes the
page against the ribbon and character on the chain.

2. Non-Impact Printers:
The printers that print the characters without striking against the
ribbon and onto the papers are called Non-Impact Printers. These
printers print a complete page at a time, therefore, it is also known
as Page Printers.
Page Printers are of two types:
• Laser Printers
• Inkjet Printers

Inkjet Printers:
These printers use a special ink called electrostatic ink. The printer
head has special nozzle. Head contains up to 64 nozzles. Nozzle
drops ink on paper. The electrostatic plate is fixed outside the
nozzle. The ink dropped is deflected by the electrostatic plate. The
deflected ink settles on paper.
Laser Printers:
A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to
print the characters. The laser beam hits the drum and draws the
image on the drum by altering electrical charges on the drum. The
drum then rolls in toner and the charged image on the drum picks
the toner. The toner is then printed on the paper by using heat and
pressure. Once the document is printed, the drum loses the electric
charge and the remaining toner is collected. The laser printers use
powdered toner for printing instead of liquid ink.

Plotters
The plotter is a computer printer for printing vector graphics.
Plotters differ from printers in a way that they draw lines using an
automated pen. As a result, they can produce continuous lines,
whereas printers can only simulate lines by printing a closely
spaced series of dots. Multicolor plotters use different-colored pens
to draw different colors. Thus, plotters are more expensive than
printers. The various type of plotter are Drum plotter, Flatbed
plotter, Electrostatic plotter, etc.
Speaker
Speakers are the output devices that transform electrical signals
into audible sounds. They're important to many modern devices,
including computers, televisions, music players, and mobile phones.
The audio system improves the multimedia experience by providing
high-quality audio output, whether listening to the song, watching
films, playing video games, or participating in virtual meetings.

Central Processing Unit

The CPU processes the information once it is entered into the
computer by the input device. The CPU is called the brain of the
computer because it is the control centre of the computer. CPU
performs the required computation, and then either stores the
output or displays it on the output device. The CPU has three main
components, which are responsible for different functions:
1. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):
The ALU performs all the arithmetic and logical operations in a
computer. It performs mathematical calculations and takes logical
decisions. Arithmetic calculations include addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. Logical decisions include the
comparison of two data items to see which one is larger or smaller
or equal.
2. Control Unit:
The Control Unit controls and coordinates the data flow in and out
of the CPU. It also controls all the operations of ALU, memory
registers and input/output units. It is also responsible for carrying
out all the instructions stored in the program.
3. Memory Unit:
Memory attached to the CPU is used for storage of data and
instructions and is called internal memory. The internal memory is
also called the Primary memory or Main memory. The internal
memory is divided into many storage locations, each of which can
store data or instructions.

Memory Unit
A memory unit is a fundamental part of a computer that performs a
vital function for storing and retrieving information and
instructions. Memory units have different types, including primary
memory, secondary memory and cache memory.
Primary Memory (RAM and ROM)
Primary memory is also known as the main memory or internal
memory. It is a part of computer memory that the CPU can access
directly. Primary Memory has a faster access time than secondary
memory.
Primary memory can be classified into two parts:
• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random Access Memory (RAM) is a type of computer memory that
is used to temporarily store data that the computer is currently
using or processing. RAM is volatile memory, which means that the
data stored in it is lost when the power is turned off. RAM is used
to store the operating system, application programs and data that
the computer is currently using.
Types of RAM
There are two types of RAM:
• SRAM
• DRAM
1. SRAM:
SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. It stores data and
program as long as the computer is in ON state. It is expensive but
faster than DRAM. It stores data in the form of voltage.
2. DRAM:
DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. The stored
data will be lost after a few millisecond even if the computer is in
ON state. So, to prevent the data loss, a refreshing circuit is
required. It is cheaper but slower than SRAM. It stores data in the
form of charge.
 SRAM DRAM
It stands for Static Random It stands for Dynamic Random
Access Memory. Access Memory.

It stores data or programs as It losses its stored data in a very

long as the power supply is in short time even if the power
ON state. supply is in ON state.

It doesnot require refreshing It needs to be refreshed

circuit. frequently. So, refreshing circuit
is needed.

It has higher speed as compared It has lower speed as compared

to DRAM. to SRAM.

It stores data as voltage. It stores data as charge.

It is expensive. It is cheap.
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Read Only Memory (ROM) is a type of computer memory that is
used to permanently store data that does not need to be modified.
ROM is non-volatile memory, which means that the data stored in
it remains safe even when the power is turned off.
There are three types of ROM:
• PROM
• EPROM
• EEPROM
1. PROM:
It stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. It is programmable
only once. That means user can write data in PROM only once.
User can store permanent programs, data and any kind of
information in a PROM.
2. EPROM:
It stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. The data
stored in EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.
When an EPROM is exposed to ultraviolet light, the entire data are
erased. The user cannot erase the content of certain selected
memory location.
3. EEPROM:
It stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory. Data can be erased and reprogrammed on the byte by
byte basis. Either a single byte or the entire chip can be erased in
one operation. It requires shorter time for erasing as compared to
EPROM.
 RAM ROM
It stands for Random Access It stands for Read Only Memory.
Memory.

Data in RAM can be modified, Data in ROM can only be read, it

The speed of RAM is higher The speed of ROM is slower
when compared to ROM. when compared to RAM.

RAM has a higher capacity ROM has a lower capacity

compared to ROM. compared to RAM.

RAM is expensive compared to ROM is cheaper compared to

ROM. RAM.

Secondary Memory
It is also called external memory. It store the data permanently
even when the power is turned off. Examples of secondary memory
devices include hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs),
USB flash drives, optical discs like CDs and DVDs, and magnetic
tapes. These devices typically offer larger storage capacities
compared to RAM but have slower access speeds.
Magnetic Storage
Magnetic storage is a type of secondary storage that uses
magnetism to store and retrieve digital data. It involves recording
data onto magnetized materials and reading it back using magnetic
sensors. Common examples of magnetic storage devices include
hard disk drives (HDDs) and magnetic tape drives.
Floppy Disk
A floppy disk is a detachable, flexible magnetic storage device that
may hold computer files or other electronic data. It is composed of
a flexible and thin magnetic storage disk that is enclosed inside a
rectangular protective plastic shell. Floppy disks are a type of
storage medium that can read stored data information and are
used to store electronic data.
Advantages of Floppy Disk
Portability: Floppy disks were small and light weight which makes
them highly portable. Users could easily carry them.
Ease of Use: Using floppy disks was relatively easier. Users could
simply insert the disk into disk drive and access its contents. There
was no need for additional drivers or complex setup procedures.
Cost-Effective: Floppy disks were relatively cheaper to
manufacture, which made them an affordable storage option for
many users.

Hard Disk
A hard disk drive (HDD) is a type of storage device that uses
magnetic storage to store and read digital information. It consists
of one or more rigid disks, known as platters, coated with a
magnetic material. These platters spin at high speeds while
read/write heads move across their surfaces to read or write data.
They offer relatively large storage capacities and are known for
their cost-effectiveness.
Advantages of Hard Disk
Large Storage Capacity: HDDs are available in a wide range of
storage capacities, from a few hundred gigabytes to multiple
terabytes.
Cost-Effective: HDDs are typically more affordable than other types
of storage technologies.
Reliability: Modern hard disk drives are more reliable and durable.

Magnetic Tape
It is sequential memory which contains thin plastic ribbon to store
data and is coated by magnetic oxide. Data read and write speed is
slower because of sequential access. It is highly reliable which
requires magnetic tape drive for writing and reading data. It has
storage capacity of 100 MB to 200 GB.
Advantages:
• These are inexpensive.
• It provides backup.
• It can be used for large files.
• It can be used for copying from disk files.
• It is a reusable memory.
Optical Storage
Optical storage refers to the storage of data using light. It involves
the use of lasers to read and write data onto optical discs. The most
common types of optical storage media include CDs (Compact
Discs) and DVDs (Digital Versatile Discs). Optical storage has been
widely used for storing various types of data, including music,
videos, software and backup files.
CD ROM
A CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc Read-Only Memory. It is a type
of optical disc that contains data readable by a computer but
cannot be altered or rewritten. It is used to store text, graphics,
sound and video. Data are stored in the form of lands and pits. It
consist of aluminium coated plastic which reflect light differently
for land and pits which are smooth and rough areas respectively.
A land reflects the laser light into the sensor and pit scatter the
light. To read stored information, the CD player passes a laser beam
over the tracks. When the laser passes over a flat area in the track,
the beam is reflected directly to optical sensor. The CD reads this as
1. When the beam passes over a pit, the light is bounced away from
the optical sensor. The CD reads it as 0.
DVD
A DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. It is an optical storage
medium that provides higher storage capacity and better video
quality compared to CDs. DVDs come in various formats, including
DVD-ROM (for software and data), DVD-Video (for movies and
other video content) and DVD-Audio (for audio). They have a
storage capacity ranging from 4.7 GB to 17 [Link] use a laser to
read and write data, with smaller pits and a narrower track
compared to CDs, allowing for higher data density.
Solid State Storage
SSD is a non-volatile storage device. It maintains the data in a
permanent state, even when the power is off. This storage device is
also called as a solid-state disk or solid-state device. Unlike the
HDDs (Hard Disk Drives), SSDs do not have any moving parts. These
storage devices store the data in the semiconductor cells. It uses
electric charges to represent binary information.
Advantages of Solid-State Drive (SSD)
 SSDs consume less power.
 The speed of reading and writing the data is faster.
 It produces less noise.
 SSDs easily manage concurrent read and write operations.
 SSDs produce less heat than HDDs.
 SSDs guarantee data integrity and security.

Pen Drive
It is a small portable storage device that uses flash memory to store
data. A pen drive is also known as a USB flash drive or thumb drive.
It is small enough to be carried in a pocket, resembling the size and
shape of a small pen or thumb.
Flash Memory Card
Flash memory is secondary memory, so it is not volatile. It is used in
small portable computers. It consist of circuitry of credit card sized
cards. It can be inserted into slots connected to the motherboard. It
can be used to simulate the main memory as well as to supplement
hard disk drives for permanent storage. Pen drives connect to
computers through a USB port, allowing users to quickly transfer
and store files such as documents, photos, videos, and software.

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a special type of high-speed memory located
close to the CPU in a computer. It stores frequently used data and
instructions, So that the CPU can access them quickly, improving
the overall speed and efficiency of the computer. It holds the data
and programs which are frequently used by the CPU. So, it makes
sure that the data is instantly available for CPU whenever the CPU
needs this data.

Types of Cache Memory

1. L1 or Level 1 Cache:
It is the first level of cache memory that is present inside the
processor. It is present in a small amount inside every core of the
processor separately. The size of this memory ranges from 2KB to
64 KB.
2. L2 or Level 2 Cache:
It is the second level of cache memory that may present inside or
outside the processor. If it is not present inside the core, It can be
shared between two cores. The size of memory ranges from 256 KB
to 512 KB.

3. L3 or Level 3 Cache:
It is the third level of cache memory that is present outside the
processor and is shared by all the cores of the CPU. This cache is
used to increase the performance of the L2 and L1 cache. The size
of this memory ranges from 1 MB to 8MB.