UNIT II

AERODYNAMICS

[Link] FORCES:

Aerodynamic forces are forces exerted on an object due to its motion through a gas, like
air. These forces are primarily due to pressure and shear stress distributions on the object's
surface. In the context of flight, the four primary aerodynamic forces are lift, drag, thrust, and
weight. These forces interact to determine an aircraft's movement and stability
.An aerodynamic force is a force exerted on a body by the air (or other gas) in which the body
is immersed, and is due to the relative motion between the body and the gas.

An airfoil is a streamlined shape designed to generate lift and drag when moved through a fluid,
typically air or water. It's the cross-sectional shape of wings, propeller blades, and other
aerodynamic surfaces. The shape of an airfoil is crucial for efficient flight and is designed to
create pressure differences that produce lift.

1. Lift: This force acts perpendicular to the direction of airflow and opposes gravity, enabling
an object to stay airborne. It's generated by the shape of the object, typically an airfoil (like an
airplane wing), which creates a pressure difference between the top and bottom surfaces.
2. Drag: This force acts opposite to the direction of motion and opposes the object's movement
through the air. Drag is caused by friction between the object's surface and the air, as well as
pressure differences created by the object's shape.
3. Thrust: This force propels the object forward and is typically generated by an engine or
other propulsion system.
4. Weight: This force is due to gravity and acts downwards, pulling the object towards the
Earth.
In dynamic equilibrium, these four forces balance each other out, allowing an object to
maintain a stable flight path.

Factors affecting aerodynamic forces:

• Airflow: The speed and direction of the air relative to the object.
• Object shape and design: Airfoils, for example, are designed to generate lift efficiently.
• Angle of attack: The angle between the object's reference line and the oncoming airflow.
• Air density: Denser air will create greater aerodynamic forces.
Examples of Aerodynamic Forces:
• Aircraft:
Lift and drag are crucial for flight, while thrust propels the aircraft and weight counteracts
lift.
• Automobiles:
Aerodynamic forces affect fuel efficiency and handling, with drag being a significant
factor.
• Rockets:
Aerodynamic forces are important for controlling the rocket's trajectory, particularly during
atmospheric flight.
• Wind turbines:
Aerodynamic forces on the blades drive the turbine to generate electricity.
Force

There are two causes of aerodynamic force:

• the normal force due to the pressure on the surface of the body
• the shear force due to the viscosity of the gas, also known as skin friction.

Pressure acts normal to the surface, and shear force acts parallel to the surface. Both forces act
locally. The net aerodynamic force on the body is equal to the pressure and shear
forces integrated over the body's total exposed area

When an airfoil moves relative to the air, it generates an aerodynamic force determined by the
velocity of relative motion, and the angle of attack. This aerodynamic force is commonly
resolved into two components, both acting through the center of pressure.

• drag is the force component parallel to the direction of relative motion,

• lift is the force component perpendicular to the direction of relative motion.
In addition to these two forces, the body may experience an aerodynamic moment.

The force created by propellers and jet engines is called thrust, and is also an aerodynamic force
(since it acts on the surrounding air). The aerodynamic force on a powered airplane is commonly
represented by three vectors: thrust, lift and drag.

The other force acting on an aircraft during flight is its weight, which is a body force and not an
aerodynamic force.
2. Lift generation Viscosity and its implications:
Aerodynamics encompasses the study of forces like lift and drag, generated by air moving
around solid objects. Viscosity, a fluid's resistance to flow, plays a crucial role in generating lift
and influencing drag. It is responsible for creating the boundary layer and the starting vortex,
both of which are essential for lift generation.
Lift Generation and Viscosity:
Boundary Layer:
Viscosity causes air molecules closest to the airfoil surface to slow down, forming a boundary
layer. This layer of slower-moving air is crucial for lift generation.
Starting Vortex:
When an airfoil starts moving, viscosity helps create a starting vortex. This vortex is a swirling
mass of air that, along with the airfoil's shape, helps establish the pressure difference needed for
lift.
Pressure Differential:
The viscosity of air and the airfoil's shape create a pressure difference above and below the
wing. Air flows faster over the curved upper surface (lower pressure) than under the flat lower
surface (higher pressure), generating lift, which is an upward force perpendicular to the airflow.

Drag and Viscosity:

Friction Drag:
Viscosity also causes friction between the air and the airfoil's surface, resulting in friction
drag. This drag force opposes the motion of the object.
Induced Drag:
In finite-span wings, trailing vortices create induced drag. These vortices, created by the pressure
difference, cause a downward flow of air that rotates the lift force backward, generating drag.
Other Factors Affecting Aerodynamic Forces:
Angle of Attack:
The angle at which the airfoil meets the airflow also affects lift and drag. Increasing the angle of
attack typically increases both lift and drag up to a certain point.
Airfoil Shape:
The shape of the airfoil is critical for generating lift. The curvature and thickness of the airfoil
significantly influence the airflow patterns and pressure distribution.
Air Velocity:
Lift and drag are directly affected by the velocity of the airflow. Higher speeds generally lead to
greater lift and drag.
Air Properties:
The density and viscosity of the air also play a role in determining the magnitude of aerodynamic
forces.
In essence, viscosity is a fundamental property of air that influences how it interacts with solid
objects, leading to the generation of lift and drag forces essential for flight.

Lift Generation
a) Definition of Lift:

Lift is the component of aerodynamic force that acts perpendicular to the relative airflow.

b) Bernoulli’s Principle (Ideal Fluid Explanation):

• High velocity → Low pressure

• Low velocity → High pressure
• Air moves faster over the curved upper surface of an airfoil → lower pressure
• Slower under the flat bottom → higher pressure
• Result: Net upward force (Lift)

c) Angle of Attack (AOA):

• Angle between the chord line of the wing and the oncoming airflow.
• As AOA increases, lift increases up to a critical angle.
• Beyond this, the wing stalls due to flow separation.

d) Circulation and Lift (Kutta–Joukowski Theorem):

• Lift per unit span:

L′= ρV Γ
• Where:
ρ = air density
V= velocity of freestream
Γ= circulation around the airfoil

e) Lift Coefficient:

3. Viscosity and Its Implications

a) What is Viscosity?

• Viscosity is the internal resistance of a fluid to flow.

• It causes shear stress between adjacent layers of fluid.

b) Types of Flow:
 • Ideal Flow (Inviscid): No viscosity
• Real Flow (Viscous): Has viscosity

c) Boundary Layer:

• Thin layer of fluid near a surface where viscous effects dominate.

• Inside it, velocity increases from zero (at the wall) to freestream.

d) Laminar vs Turbulent Flow:

• Laminar: Smooth, orderly flow – low viscosity effects

• Turbulent: Irregular, chaotic – more drag, but better energy mixing

e) Separation and Stall:

• Viscosity causes flow separation under high AOA or adverse pressure gradients.
• Leads to loss of lift and stall.

f) Drag due to Viscosity:

• Skin friction drag: Due to shear stress on the surface

• Pressure (form) drag: Due to flow separation

4. Implications in Aerodynamics

Concept Effect
Viscosity Causes drag and boundary layers
Lift generation Dependent on pressure differences and flow behavior
Turbulence Increases drag, but improves mixing
Boundary layer Key to predicting separation and stall
Airfoil design Should minimize drag, delay stall
 3. SHEAR STRESS WITHIN A VELOCITY PROFILE

In aerodynamics, shear stress within a velocity profile represents the force acting tangentially to
a surface due to the fluid's internal friction as it flows over that surface. This stress arises from
the velocity gradient within the boundary layer, where the fluid velocity changes from zero at
the surface to the free-stream velocity further away. It's a crucial factor in understanding
aerodynamic forces like drag and lift, particularly near surfaces where the flow velocity changes
rapidly, such as in the boundary layer.

The point at which a material's innards start to slide or deform when force is applied parallel to
its surface

• Shear stress in fluid mechanics is the force per unit area exerted by a fluid as it
moves parallel to a surface.
• In aerodynamics, it arises due to the viscous nature of air.

• Velocity Profile:
In aerodynamics, the velocity profile describes how the speed of the air changes as you move
away from a surface (like an airfoil). Near the surface, the air molecules directly in contact with
the surface are stationary due to the no-slip condition, while the speed increases with distance
from the surface.
• Shear Stress:
Shear stress (often denoted by the Greek letter τ) is a measure of how much force is needed to
deform a material by sliding one part of it over another. In fluid dynamics, it's the force per unit
area that one layer of fluid exerts on an adjacent layer due to the difference in their velocities.

• Relationship to Velocity Gradient:

 The shear stress is directly proportional to the velocity gradient (the rate of change of velocity
with distance). A steeper velocity gradient (meaning a faster change in velocity over a short
distance) results in higher shear stress.
• In Aerodynamics:
In aerodynamics, shear stress is particularly important at the surface of objects like airplane
wings or car bodies. The air in contact with the surface experiences shear stress due to its close
proximity and friction with the solid surface.
• Formula:
Shear stress (τ) is calculated as: τ = μ * (du/dy), where μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid
and du/dy is the velocity gradient.
• Impact:
Shear stress contributes to drag (the force that opposes motion through the air). It also influences
the development and behavior of the boundary layer, which can affect lift and overall
aerodynamic performance.
 1. Velocity Gradient and Shear Stress:
• Shear stress arises from the velocity gradient within the fluid, meaning how quickly the fluid's
velocity changes as you move away from a surface.
• The faster the velocity changes (steeper gradient), the greater the shear stress.
• In simpler terms, imagine a fluid flowing over a surface. The fluid particles right next to the
surface are essentially stationary due to the no-slip condition, while those further away are
moving faster. This difference in velocity creates shear stress.
 2. Shear Stress Formula:
• In a Newtonian fluid (a fluid where shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient), shear
stress (τ) is calculated as: τ = μ * (du/dy).
o μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
o du/dy is the velocity gradient (the rate of change of velocity with respect to distance
perpendicular to the surface).

3. Relevance in Aerodynamics:
• Boundary Layer:
Shear stress is particularly important in the boundary layer, the thin layer of fluid near a surface
where the velocity gradient is significant.
• Skin Friction Drag:
Shear stress at the surface contributes to skin friction drag, one of the major components of drag
on an aircraft.
• Lift and Pressure Distribution:
Shear stress also influences the pressure distribution over a surface, which in turn affects lift
generation.
• Turbulence:
In turbulent flow, shear stress fluctuates rapidly, contributing to the complex nature of turbulent
drag and mixing.

Examples:
• Airfoil:
On an airfoil, shear stress is higher near the leading edge and the trailing edge, where the
velocity gradient is steeper.
• Aircraft Wing:
The wing's shape and angle of attack influence the velocity profile and, consequently, the shear
stress distribution, which affects lift and drag.

4. In essence, shear stress in aerodynamics is a measure of the frictional forces within the fluid
flow that are generated by the velocity gradient. It is a fundamental concept for understanding
and predicting aerodynamic forces and performance.

1. Velocity Gradient and Shear Stress:

• Velocity Profile:
In aerodynamics, a velocity profile describes how the speed of the airflow changes with distance
from a surface (e.g., an airplane wing).
• No-Slip Condition:
At the surface, the fluid velocity is typically considered zero due to the "no-slip condition".
• Velocity Gradient:
As you move away from the surface, the fluid velocity increases until it reaches the freestream
velocity. This change in velocity over distance is called the velocity gradient.
• Shear Stress:
The velocity gradient creates shear stress within the fluid. The shear stress is the force per unit
area that one layer of fluid exerts on an adjacent layer due to their velocity difference.
• Newton's Law of Viscosity:
This relationship is described by Newton's law of viscosity, which states that shear stress is
proportional to the velocity gradient and the fluid's viscosity.
2. Shear Stress in Aerodynamics:
• Boundary Layer:
The region near the surface where the velocity gradient and shear stress are significant is called
the boundary layer.
• Drag:
Shear stress within the boundary layer contributes to skin friction drag, one of the major
components of overall drag on an object moving through the air.
• Lift:
Shear stress also plays a role in generating lift, particularly on airfoils, by influencing the pressure
distribution around the airfoil.
• Airfoil Design:
Understanding shear stress distribution is essential for designing airfoils that minimize drag and
maximize lift, leading to more efficient aircraft.

3. Mathematical Representation:
• Shear stress (τ) is often calculated using the formula: τ = μ * (du/dy), where:
o τ is the shear stress.
o μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (air in this case).
o du/dy is the velocity gradient (the rate of change of velocity with respect to distance
perpendicular to the surface).
4. Types of Flow and Shear Stress:
• Laminar Flow:
In laminar flow, the fluid moves in smooth layers with minimal mixing. The velocity profile is
usually more predictable, and shear stress can be calculated more easily.
• Turbulent Flow:
In turbulent flow, the fluid motion is chaotic and characterized by eddies and mixing. The
velocity profile is more complex, and shear stress is harder to calculate precisely.
[Link] AND EULERIAN FLOW FIELD:

In aerodynamics, analyzing how air moves is critical. The Eulerian approach focuses on fixed
points in space, observing how properties like velocity, pressure, and temperature change over
time at those locations. In contrast, the Lagrangian approach tracks the motion of individual fluid
particles, following their paths and observing how properties change along those paths . There
are two main approaches to describe fluid flow:
• Lagrangian description – follows individual fluid particles.
• Eulerian description – observes flow properties at fixed points in space.
1. Lagrangian Flow Field
Definition:
In the Lagrangian approach, we track individual fluid particles as they move over time.
Each particle’s position, velocity, and acceleration are observed.
Mathematical View:

Particle’s position:
Velocity and acceleration are derived from position with respect to time.
Applications in Aerodynamics:
Used in particle tracking, spray dynamics, or Lagrangian vortex methods.
Helps understand fuel droplet movement, debris motion, etc.
Example:
Tracking a smoke particle as it flows around an airfoil.
2. Eulerian Flow Field
Definition:
In the Eulerian approach, we observe fluid properties at fixed locations in space.
Mathematical View:
Velocity field:

In aerodynamics, the Lagrangian and Eulerian flow field descriptions offer two distinct
perspectives for analyzing fluid motion. The Lagrangian view follows individual fluid
particles, tracking their properties (like position, velocity, etc.) as they move through space
and time. Conversely, the Eulerian view focuses on specific points in space, observing how
fluid properties change at those locations as the fluid flows past. While the Lagrangian
approach is useful for understanding individual particle behavior, the Eulerian approach is
more commonly used in fluid mechanics due to its computational advantages in handling
complex flow scenarios.
Lagrangian Description:
Focus: Follows the motion of individual fluid parcels.
Representation: Describes fluid properties as a function of time for each specific parcel.
Example: Tracking the trajectory of a smoke puff as it moves through the air.
Advantages: Provides detailed information about the movement and history of individual
particles.
Disadvantages: Can be computationally expensive, especially for complex flows with many
particles.
Eulerian Description:
Focus: Observes fluid properties at fixed points in space.
Representation: Describes fluid properties as functions of both space and time at those fixed
points.
Example: Measuring wind speed and direction at a weather station.
Advantages: More computationally efficient for complex flows.
Disadvantages: Less intuitive for understanding the motion of individual particles.
 5. CONCEPT OF A STREAMLINE:
In aerodynamics, a streamline is an imaginary line that represents the path of a massless particle
moving within a fluid flow, where the tangent at any point on the line indicates the direction of
the fluid velocity at that point. It essentially visualizes how the fluid flows around an
object. Streamlines are useful for understanding and analyzing fluid flow patterns, especially in
the context of aerodynamics and design.
• Steady Flow:
Streamlines are typically used to describe steady flow, where the velocity at any given point in
the flow field remains constant over time. In this case, the streamlines remain fixed.
• Tangential Velocity:
At any point on a streamline, the tangent to the curve represents the direction of the fluid's
velocity at that point. The velocity vector is always tangential to the streamline.
• No Crossing:
Because the fluid velocity has a unique direction at any given point, streamlines cannot cross
each other.
• Flow Visualization:
Streamlines are a powerful tool for visualizing fluid flow and understanding how air or other
fluids move around objects. Engineers use streamlines to analyze flow patterns in wind tunnels
or computer simulations (CFD) to optimize designs for better aerodynamics, such as minimizing
drag and maximizing lift.

• Streamlining:

The concept of streamlining, which involves shaping objects to minimize drag and improve
efficiency in fluid flow, is directly related to the analysis of streamlines.

• Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines:

While streamlines represent the instantaneous velocity field, streaklines and pathlines are also
used to visualize flow. Streaklines show the path of all particles that have passed through a
specific point, while pathlines show the trajectory of a single fluid particle over time.

A streamline is a path traced out by a massless particle as it moves with the flow. It is
easiest to visualize a streamline if we move along with the body (as opposed to moving with the
flow). The figure above shows the computed streamlines around an airfoil and around
a cylinder. In both cases, we move with the object and the flow proceeds from left to right. Since
the streamline is traced out by a moving particle, at every point along the path the velocity is
tangent to the path. Since there is no normal component of the velocity along the path, mass
cannot cross a streamline. The mass contained between any two streamlines remains the same
throughout the flowfield. We can use Bernoulli's equation to relate the pressure and velocity
along the streamline. Since no mass passes through the surface of the airfoil (or cylinder), the
surface of the object is a streamline.

Airplanes fly by moving through almost still air, yet we design and test them using wind
tunnels, where the airplane model is fixed and the air is made to move past the model. This idea
of keeping the airfoil fixed and having the air stream past the airfoil can be a bit confusing. Yet
you experience the same kind of thing every day! When you stand on the corner and watch a car
go by, the air around you is relatively still. As the car moves through the air there are
aerodynamic forces present. Now if you were in the car and put your hand out the window, you
could feel the aerodynamic force pushing on your hand. It feels like the air is moving past your
hand as fast as the car is moving. The forces on the car are the same, whether you are standing
on the corner or riding in the car. Well this same thing is true of airplanes. Whether the airplane
moves through the air, or the air is pushed past the airplane, the forces are exactly the same. It's
usually easier, less expensive, and (in some cases) less dangerous to test airplanes in a wind
tunnel before trying to fly them.
Streamlining, in aerodynamics, the contouring of an object, such as an aircraft body,
to reduce its drag, or resistance to motion through a stream of air.

A moving body causes the air to flow around it in definite patterns, the
components of which are called streamlines. Smooth, regular airflow patterns around
an object are called laminar flow; they denote a minimum of disturbance of the air by
the object’s motion through it. Turbulent flow occurs when air is disturbed and
separates from the surface of the moving body, with the consequent formation of a zone
of swirling eddies in the body’s wake. This eddy formation represents a reduction in the
downstream pressure on the moving object and is a principal source of
drag. Streamlining, then, is the contouring of an aircraft or other body in such a way
that its turbulent wake is reduced to a minimum. The mechanics of airflow patterns lead
to two principles for subsonic streamlining: (1) the forward part of the object should be
well rounded, and (2) the body should gradually curve back from the midsection to a
tapering rear section. An efficiently streamlined body thus takes on the look of a
horizontally inclined teardrop shape.

An aircraft or other body that is traveling at supersonic speeds requires a

different streamlined form from that of a subsonic aircraft because it is moving faster
than the speed at which the pressure impulses it creates are propagated in air. Because
the pressure waves can no longer be transmitted ahead of an aircraft moving at
supersonic speed, they pile up in front of it, creating a compression, or shock, wave.
Further shock waves are created at the midsection and tail of the supersonic aircraft.
The strength of these shock waves is dependent on the magnitude of the change in the
air’s direction, which in turn is dependent on the sharpness or angle of the forward tip
and other surfaces of the aircraft’s body. Supersonic aircraft thus have sharply pointed
noses and tails and straight, narrow bodies to minimize the intensity of the shock waves
(and attendant drag).

Streamlines, streaklines and pathlines are field lines in a fluid flow. They differ only
when the flow changes with time, that is, when the flow is not steady. Considering
a velocity vector field in three-dimensional space in the framework of continuum
mechanics:

• Streamlines are a family of curves whose tangent vectors constitute

the velocity vector field of the flow. These show the direction in which a
massless fluid element will travel at any point in time.
• Streaklines are the loci of points of all the fluid particles that have passed
continuously through a particular spatial point in the past. Dye steadily injected into
the fluid at a fixed point (as in dye tracing) extends along a streakline.
• Pathlines are the trajectories that individual fluid particles follow. These can be
thought of as "recording" the path of a fluid element in the flow over a certain period.
The direction the path takes will be determined by the streamlines of the fluid at
each moment in time.
 6. AIRCRAFT TERMINOLOGY AND GEOMETRY
Aircraft geometry and terminology encompasses the physical characteristics of an aircraft and
the vocabulary used to describe them. Key elements include the wing, fuselage, tail, and control
surfaces, each with specific features and functions.
1. Wing Geometry:

• Leading Edge: The front edge of the wing, where it first meets the airflow.

• Trailing Edge: The rear edge of the wing, where the airflow separates.

• Chord: The distance between the leading and trailing edges, often represented by a straight line.

• Span: The distance from one wingtip to the other.

• Airfoil: The cross-sectional shape of the wing, designed to generate lift.

• Root: The part of the wing closest to the fuselage.

• Tip: The outermost part of the wing, furthest from the fuselage.

• Angle of Attack (AOA): The angle between the wing's chord line and the oncoming airflow.

• Dihedral: The upward angle of the wings relative to the horizontal.

• Anhedral: The downward angle of the wings relative to the horizontal.

• Planform: The shape of the wing when viewed from above.

2. Fuselage:

• The main body of the aircraft, housing the cockpit, passenger cabin, and cargo area.

• Longitudinal Axis: The axis running from the nose to the tail of the aircraft.

• Lateral Axis: The axis running from wingtip to wingtip.

• Vertical Axis: The axis running from top to bottom.

3. Control Surfaces:

• Ailerons:

Located on the wings, used to control roll (rotation about the longitudinal axis).

• Elevators:

Located on the horizontal stabilizer, used to control pitch (rotation about the lateral axis).

• Rudder:
Located on the vertical stabilizer, used to control yaw (rotation about the vertical axis)
4. General Aviation Terms:

• Fuselage: The main body of the aircraft.

• Cockpit: The area where the pilot controls the aircraft.

• Tail Assembly: Includes the horizontal and vertical stabilizers, and the elevators and rudder.

• Landing Gear: Supports the aircraft on the ground.

• Propeller: A rotating airfoil that provides thrust.

• Engine: Provides the power for the aircraft.

• Aspect Ratio: The ratio of the wingspan to the average chord length.

• Angle of Incidence: The angle between the wing's chord line and the aircraft's longitudinal axis.

• Center of Gravity (CG): The point where the aircraft's weight is concentrated.

This slide gives technical definitions of a wing's geometry, which is one of the
chief factors affecting airplane lift and drag. The terminology is used throughout the airplane
industry and is also found in the FoilSim program developed here at NASA Glenn. Actual
aircraft wings are complex three-dimensional objects, but we will start with some simple
definitions. The figure shows the wing viewed from three directions; the upper left shows the
view from the top looking down on the wing, the lower left shows the view from the front looking
at the wing leading edge, and the right shows a side view from the left looking in towards the
centerline. The side view shows an airfoil shape with the leading edge to the left.

Top View
The top view shows a simple wing geometry, like that found on a light general aviation aircraft.
The front of the wing (at the bottom) is called the leading edge; the back of the wing (at the top)
is called the trailing edge. The distance from the leading to trailing edges is called the chord,
denoted by the symbol c. The ends of the wing are called the wing tips, and the distance from
one wing tip to the other is called the span, given the symbol s. The shape of the wing, when
viewed from above looking down onto the wing, is called a planform. In this figure, the planform
is a rectangle. For a rectangular wing, the chord length at every location along the span is the
same. For most other planforms, the chord length varies along the span. The wing area, A, is the
projected area of the planform and is bounded by the leading and trailing edges and the wing
tips. Note: The wing area is NOT the total surface area of the wing. The total surface
area includes both upper and lower surfaces. The wing area is a projected area and is almost
half of the total surface area.

Aspect ratio is a measure of how long and slender a wing is from tip to tip. The Aspect Ratio of
a wing is defined to be the square of the span divided by the wing area and is given the
symbol AR. For a rectangular wing, this reduces to the ratio of the span to the chord length as
shown at the upper right of the figure.

AR = s^2 / A = s^2 / (s * c) = s / c

High aspect ratio wings have long spans (like high performance gliders), while low aspect ratio
wings have either short spans or thick chords (like the Space Shuttle). There is a component of
the drag of an aircraft called induced drag which depends inversely on the aspect ratio. A higher
aspect ratio wing has a lower drag and a slightly higher lift than a lower aspect ratio wing.
Because the glide angle of a glider depends on the ratio of the lift to the drag, a glider is usually
designed with a very high aspect ratio. The Space Shuttle has a low aspect ratio because of high
speed effects, and therefore is a very poor glider. The F-14 and F-111 have the best of both
worlds. They can change the aspect ratio in flight by pivoting the wings--large span for low
speed, small span for high speed.

Front View
The front view of this wing shows that the left and right wing do not lie in the same plane but
meet at an angle. The angle that the wing makes with the local horizontal is called the dihedral
angle. Dihedral is added to the wings for roll stability; a wing with some dihedral will naturally
return to its original position if it encounters a slight roll displacement. You may have noticed
that most large airliner wings are designed with diherdral. The wing tips are farther off the ground
than the wing root. Highly maneuverable fighter planes, on the other hand do not have dihedral.
In fact, some fighter aircraft have the wing tips lower than the roots giving the aircraft a high roll
rate. A negative dihedral angle is called anhedral .
Side View
A cut through the wing perpendicular to the leading and trailing edges will show the cross-section
of the wing. This side view is called an airfoil, and it has some geometry definitions of its own
as shown at the lower right. The straight line drawn from the leading to trailing edges of the
airfoil is called the chord line. The chord line cuts the airfoil into an upper surface and a lower
surface. If we plot the points that lie halfway between the upper and lower surfaces, we obtain a
curve called the mean camber line. For a symmetric airfoil (upper surface the same shape as the
lower surface) the mean camber line will fall on top of the chord line. But in most cases, these
are two separate lines. The maximum distance between the two lines is called the camber, which
is a measure of the curvature of the airfoil (high camber means high curvature). The maximum
distance between the upper and lower surfaces is called the thickness. Often you will see these
values divided by the chord length to produce a non-dimensional or "percent" type of number.
Airfoils can come with all kinds of combinations of camber and thickness
distributions. NACA (the precursor of NASA) established a method of designating classes of
airfoils and then wind tunnel tested the airfoils to provide lift coefficients and drag
coefficients for designers.
[Link] TYPES
Aircraft can be broadly classified into lighter-than-air and heavier-than-air. Lighter-than-air
aircraft, like balloons and airships, achieve lift through buoyancy. Heavier-than-air aircraft,
 which includes airplanes, rotorcraft, and gliders, utilize aerodynamic lift or other means to stay
airborne.
1. Lighter-than-air Aircraft:
• Balloons:
Non-steerable aircraft that drift with the wind. They can be hot air balloons or gas balloons.
• Airships:
Steerable aircraft that can be controlled in all three axes of flight. They can be nonrigid (like
blimps), semi-rigid, or rigid.

2. Heavier-than-air Aircraft:
• Airplanes:
Fixed-wing aircraft that generate lift by the movement of air over the wings.
• By engine type: Single-engine, multi-engine, jet, or propeller-driven.
• By purpose: Commercial (passenger and cargo), military (fighter, bomber, etc.), and general
aviation (private and recreational).
• By landing surface: Landplanes (land only), seaplanes (water only), and amphibians (both
land and water).
Rotorcraft:
Aircraft that use rotating wings (rotors) to generate lift.
• Helicopters: Can hover, take off, and land vertically.
• Gyroplanes: Have a free-spinning rotor that provides lift, but require forward motion to
rotate the rotor.
• Tiltrotors: Combine features of airplanes and helicopters, with rotors that can tilt to provide
lift and thrust.
Gliders:
Aircraft that rely on lift generated by the movement of air over their wings, and can be towed
or launched using other means.
Powered lift:
Aircraft that can take off and land vertically or short distances, like the V-22 Osprey.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) or Drones:
Aircraft that are remotely controlled or autonomous, used for various purposes.

The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation. The science of aviation, including
designing and building aircraft, is called aeronautics. Crewed aircraft are flown by an
onboard pilot, whereas unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled
by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, aircraft
propulsion (if any), usage and others.
 The primary categories and classes of civil aircraft are:
• Airplanes: Single-engine land (SEL) Multi-engine land (MEL) Single-engine sea (SES) ...
• Rotorcraft: Helicopter. Gyroplane. Tiltrotor.
• Lighter-than-air or aerostats: Airship (e.g., a blimp or dirigible) Balloon (e.g., a hot-air balloon)
• Glider (or sailplane).
• Air shipment, also known as air freight or air cargo, refers to the transportation of goods via
aircraft. It's a method often chosen for its speed and reliability in moving cargo over long
distances, particularly for time-sensitive or high-value items. While more expensive than sea or
ground freight, air shipment's speed and efficiency make it a preferred option for industries
needing rapid delivery.
• Standard hot air balloons are known as Montgolfier balloons and rely solely on the buoyancy of
hot air provided by the burner and contained by the envelope. A hot air balloon is a lighter-than-
air aircraft consisting of a bag, called an envelope, which contains heated air.
• A glider is a fixed-wing aircraft that is supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of the air
against its lifting surfacesGliders are principally used for the air sports of gliding, hang gliding
and paragliding. However some spacecraft have been designed to descend as gliders and in the
past military gliders have been used in warfare. Some simple and familiar types of glider are toys
such as paper planes and balsa wood gliders.
• A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by horizontally
spinning rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly
forward, backward and laterally. These attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or
isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft and many forms of short take-off and landing (STOL)
or short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) aircraft cannot perform without a runway.
• A gyroplane, also known as an autogyro or gyrocopter, is a type of rotorcraft that uses a free-
spinning, unpowered rotor to generate lift. Unlike a helicopter, the rotor on a gyroplane is not
powered; it rotates due to the airflow as the aircraft moves forward. This unique design makes
gyroplanes known for their safety and stability, even in gusty conditions.
• A tiltrotor is an aircraft that combines the capabilities of a helicopter and a fixed-wing airplane
by using rotors that can rotate from a vertical position for takeoff and landing to a horizontal
position for forward flight. This allows for vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) like a helicopter,
and the speed and range of a fixed-wing aircraft.
• A monoplane is a type of fixed-wing aircraft characterized by a single main supporting plane
(wing). It contrasts with biplanes and other multiplanes, which have multiple wing
structures. Monoplanes are generally favored for their efficiency and lower drag compared to
multiplanes.
• Biplanes are commonly used in aerobatics because they have greater maneuverability and
usually deliver a faster roll rate than monoplanes. Many pilots also consider a biplane easier to
control. You'll notice this if you ever fly a stunt plane or attend an aerobatic performance with
biplanes.
• A seaplane is an aircraft designed to take off from and land on water. They are also known as
hydroplanes, though this term is less commonly used now. Seaplanes are categorized into two
main types: floatplanes and flying boats.
• A private jet, also known as a business jet, is a jet aircraft designed for transporting small groups
of people, typically business executives and high-ranking associates. They offer flexibility,
luxury, and convenience for business and leisure travel.
• Passenger airlines are commercial airlines that primarily transport people rather than
cargo. These airlines operate scheduled flights and offer various classes of service, from
economy to first class, to cater to diverse passenger needs. Examples include IndiGo, Air
India, and SpiceJet in India, and American Airlines, Delta Air Lines in the US.
• A cargo airplane, also known as a freighter or freight aircraft, is a fixed-wing aircraft designed
specifically for transporting goods and freight rather than passengers. These planes are built with
features like large cargo doors, reinforced floors, and optimized cabins to efficiently handle
cargo. They play a vital role in global trade by facilitating the rapid movement of goods over
long distances.
• Combat aircraft, or "warplanes", are divided broadly into fighters, bombers, attackers, electronic
warfare, maritime, multirole, and unmanned aircraft.
• The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system used by NASA
from 1981 to 2011. It was the first spacecraft designed to carry both astronauts and cargo to
space and back, including satellites and components for the International Space Station.

[Link] AND DRAG COEFFICIENTS USING NACA DATA:

NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) airfoils are widely used in aerodynamics
to design wings and other aerodynamic surfaces. Lift and drag coefficients, which are
 dimensionless quantities, are crucial in determining the performance of an airfoil. They vary
based on the airfoil's geometry, angle of attack, and Reynolds number.
• Lift Coefficient (Cl):
Represents the amount of lift generated by the airfoil for a given angle of attack and flow
conditions. It is directly proportional to the lift force.
• Drag Coefficient (Cd):
Represents the amount of drag force acting on the airfoil. It is directly proportional to the drag
force.

Factors Affecting Lift and Drag Coefficients:

• Angle of Attack (α):

The angle between the airfoil's chord line and the oncoming airflow. It significantly affects
both lift and drag.
• Airfoil Geometry:
Different NACA airfoil profiles (e.g., 0012, 2412, 4418) have unique lift and drag
characteristics.
• Reynolds Number (Re):
A dimensionless number that represents the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in the
flow. It influences the flow regime (laminar or turbulent) and thus affects lift and drag.
• Mach Number (M):
A dimensionless number representing the ratio of the speed of the object to the speed of
sound. It becomes important at higher speeds where compressibility effects become
significant.

Using NACA Data:

1. NACA Airfoil Selection:

Choose the appropriate NACA airfoil series (4-digit, 5-digit, etc.) and specific airfoil number
based on the desired aerodynamic characteristics.
2. Data Sources:
NACA reports, online resources like AeroToolbox, and software like xFoil provide lift and
drag coefficient data for various NACA airfoils.
3. Data Interpretation:
The data is typically presented as plots of Cl and Cd against angle of attack for a given
Reynolds number.
4. Lift and Drag Calculation:
Once you have the Cl and Cd values, you can calculate the lift and drag forces using the
following equations:

Lift = 0.5 * ρ * V^2 * S * Cl

Drag = 0.5 * ρ * V^2 * S * Cd
Where:

ρ is the air density

V is the velocity of the airflow
S is the reference area (e.g., wing area)

Performance Analysis: By analyzing the lift and drag characteristics, you can optimize airfoil
design for specific applications, such as maximizing lift-to-drag ratio for efficient flight.
Examples:

NACA 0012:
A symmetrical airfoil, often used for control surfaces. It exhibits a relatively low drag
coefficient compared to some other airfoils.