ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF COMPUTIONAL AND NATURAL SCIENCE

(DEPARTEMENT OF PHYSICS)
Electromagnetism
Indivdual Assignment

Name : Fitsum Alemayehu

ID:UGR/4499/16

SUBMISSION DATE: May/ / 2025 G.C

SUBMITTED TO :

I
 Alternating Current Circuits
I. AC
is an electric current that periodically reverses direction and changes its magnitude
continuously with time This time-varying voltage from the source is described by
∆v = ∆Vmax sin �t
where ∆Vmax is the maximum output voltage of the source
��
the angular frequency of the AC voltage is � = ���= �
where f is the frequency of the source and T is the period.

II. Resistors
a simple AC circuit consisting of a resistor and an AC source as shown in Figure . At
any instant, the algebraic sum of the voltages around a closed loop in a circuit must
be zero (Kirchhoff’s loop rule). Therefore, ∆v +∆VR = 0 or, ∆v -iR R=0

A resistor is connected across an alternating-current generator

If we rearrange this expression and substitute ∆ vmax sin ω t for ∆ v,the instantaneous
current in the resistor is
∆� ∆����
��= � = �
sin�t = ���� sin�t maximum current in resistor
where ���� is the maximum current:
∆����
���� =
�
∆�� =�� R= ���� Rsin�t voltage across a resistor

Let’s quantify this discussion by noting that the power delivered to a resistor is given
by P = �2 R, ,where i represents the instantaneous current. Since power depends on the
square of the current, the direction (or sign) of the current whether positive or
negative does not affect the power. Therefore, the heating effect caused by an
alternating current with a peak value of Imax is equivalent to that of a direct current,
provided they have the same effective value.

the current: Irms = ����� Because �2 varies ���2 �t as and because the average value of
�
�� = ����� , the rms current is
�

����
���� = = 0.707���� rms current
�
���� = ����� � average power deliverd to a resistor

1
Alternating voltage is also in terms of rms voltage, and the relationship is identical to
that for current:
∆����
∆���� = = 0.707∆���� rms voltage
�

[Link]
shows a circuit containing an inductance and a generator with the Alternating emf

An inductor is connected across an alternating-current generator.

Because ∆vL = -L(d�� /dt) is the selfinduced instantaneous voltage across the inductor ,
Using the loop rule and proceeding as we did to ,∆v +∆�� = 0,
���
∆v - L =0
��

Substituting ∆Vmax sin ωt for ∆v and rearranging gives

���
∆V=L =∆Vmax sin �t
��
Solving this will give
∆����
��� = sin �t
�
Integrating this expression1 gives the instantaneous current iL in the inductor as a
function of time:
∆���� ∆����
iL = �
= ������� = − ��
�����
�
Using the trigonometric identity cos �t =-sin(�t - �), we can express Equation above
∆���� �
iL= ��
��� �� − � Current in an inductor

the current in an inductive circuit reaches its maximum value when cos ωt = ±1:
���
���x= �� Maximum current in an inductor

XL = �L Inductive reactance
Therefore, we can write Equation 33.9 as
����
���x= ��
The expression for the rms current in an inductor is similar to Equation above, with Imax
replaced by Irms and Vmax replaced by ∆Vrms.
��
∆�� =-L ���=−∆Vmax sin �t = -���� �� sin �t Voltage across an inductor

IV. Capacitors
Shows a circuit containing a capacitance and a generator with the alternating emf

A capacitor is connected across an alternating-current generator

Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to this circuit gives
∆v +∆�� =0 or

2
 �
∆v - =� Substituting ∆Vmax sinωt for ∆v and rearranging gives
�
q=C∆Vmax Sin�t
where q is the instantaneous charge on the capacitor. Differentiating Equation
above with respect to time gives the instantaneous current in the circuit:
��
�� = �� =�� ∆Vmax Cos �t Equation 1
Using the trigonometric identity
π
Cos ωt =Sin(ωt + 2
)
So then we can express the equation in the alternative form
�
�� =�� ∆VmaxSin(�t + ) Current in a capacitor
�
Equation 1 shows that the current in the circuit reaches its maximum value when
cos �t = ±�:
∆�
���� =�� ∆Vmax = �/��
���
Equation 2
�
XC =�� capacitive reactance:
We can now write Equation 2 as
∆����
���� = ��
maximum current in a capacitor
The rms current is given by an expression similar to Equation above, with Imax replaced
by Irms and ∆Vmax replaced by ∆Vrms.
Using Equation above, we can express the instantaneous voltage across the capacitor
as
∆Vc = ∆Vmax sin�t =���� �� sin�t Voltage across a capacitor

V. RLC Series Circuit

a circuit that contains a combination of circuit elements: a resistor, an inductor, and a
capacitor connected in series across an alternating-voltage source.

∆V=∆Vmax sin�t
When the circuit elements are all connected together to the AC source, the current in
the circuit is given by
I=���� sin(�t -∅)
where ∅ is some phase angle between the current and the applied voltage.
∆�� =���� Rsin�t = ∆�� sin�t

3
 �
∆�� =���� XL sin(�t + ) = ∆�� ����t
�
�
∆�� =���� Xc sin(�t - ) = - ∆�� ����t
�
From the right triangle in above, we see that (∆VL + ∆Vc )

∆Vmax= ∆��� + (∆�� − ∆�� )� = ���� � + (���� �� − ���� �� )�

∆Vmax=���� �� + (�� − �� )�
Therefore, we can express the maximum current as
∆����
���� = Maximum current in RLC circuit
�� + (�� −�� )�
the denominator of the fraction plays the role of resistance and is called the
impedance Z of the circuit:
Z= �� + (�� − �� )� impedance
where impedance also has units of ohms. Therefore, maximum current can be written
in the form
∆����
���� = �
Note that the impedance and therefore the current in an AC circuit depend on the
resistance, the inductance, the capacitance, and the frequency .
the phase angle ∅ between the current and the voltage is found as follows:
∆�� −∆�� ���� �� −������
∅ = ���−� ∆��
= ���−�
���� �
�� −��
∅ = ��� −�
Phase angle
�
When XL >XC (which occurs at high frequencies), the phase angle is positive,
When XL < XC , the phase angle is negative, signifying that the current leads the
applied voltage, and the circuit is more capacitive than inductive.
When ,XL = XC , the phase angle is zero and the circuit is purely resistive

[Link] in AC Circuit
For the RLC circuit shown , we can express the instantaneous power P as
P=� ∆� =ImaxSin(�� − ∅) ∆�maxSin��
P=���� ∆ ���� Sin�� Sin(�� − ∅)
by first using the trigonometric identity Sin( ωt − ∅ )= Sin ωtCos∅ - Cos ωtsin∅ .
Substituting this identity into Equation above gives
P= ���� ∆ ���� Sin�� 2cos∅ − ���� ∆ ���� Sin������� s��∅
The time average of the second term on the right of the equal sign is identically zero
1 1
because Sinωtcosωt = 2sin2ωt, and the average value of 2sin2ωt is zero.
Therefore, we can express the average power Pavg as

4
 �
Pavg=� ���� ∆ ���� Cos∅
It is convenient to express the average power in terms of the rms current and rms
voltage by
�
Pavg=� ���� ∆ ���� Cos∅ Average power delivered to an RLC circuit
where the quantity cos ∅ is called the power factor. In the previous Figure above
shows that the maximum voltage across the resistor is given by ∆ VR = ∆ Vmax cos ∅ =
ImaxR. Therefore, cos∅ = ImaxR/∆Vmax = R/Z, and we can express Pavg as

� � ∆ ����
Pavg= ���� ∆ ���� Cos∅=���� ∆ ���� =���� �
R
� �
Recognizing that ∆���� /Z=Irms gives
Pavg= ����� R
The average power delivered by the source is converted to internal energy in the
resistor, just as in the case of a DC circuit. When the load is purely resistive,
∅=0,cos∅=1, and, we see that
Pavg=���� ∆ ����
In an AC circuit, pure capacitors and inductors do not cause power loss because they
only temporarily store and release energy. In the case of a capacitor, as the AC current
changes direction, the capacitor alternately charges and discharges, storing energy as
electric potential and then returning it to the source, with this cycle occurring twice
per full AC cycle. As a result, the average power over time is zero. When this voltage
reaches its maximum value, the energy stored in the capacitor as electric potential
1
energy is C (∆ Vrms )2\
2

Similarly, an inductor stores energy in its magnetic field when current increases and
releases it back to the source when the current decreases, as it resists changes in
current. In both cases, energy is not dissipated but simply exchanged with the
[Link] the current in an inductor reaches its maximum value, the energy stored
1
in the inductor is a maximum and is given By L I2max
2

AC power delivery depends on phase, so factories with inductive loads use added
capacitance to correct the phase and improve power efficiency without raising voltage.

References