INDEX
[Link]. TOPICS PAGE NO.
1. Introduction 3
2. Historical Background 4
3. Types of 5
semiconductors
Properties of 7
semiconductors
4.
10
5. Working Principle of
Semiconductors
12
6. Semiconductor Devices
and Applications
7. Bibliography 15
2
Introduction
Semiconductors are materials that have revolutionized the world of science and
technology. They occupy a unique position between conductors, such as copper
or aluminum, which allow the easy flow of electric current, and insulators, such
as glass or rubber, which resist the flow of electricity. The conductivity of
semiconductors is neither too high nor too low but lies in an intermediate range.
What makes them remarkable is that their conductivity can be precisely
controlled by temperature, light, impurities, or electric fields . This
controllable behavior is the reason why semiconductors are considered the
backbone of modern electronics .
The most widely used semiconductor material is silicon ( Si) , followed by
germanium (Ge) and compound semiconductors like gallium arsenide
(GaAs) . Silicon, in particular, is abundant, cost-effective, and easy to
fabricate, making it the preferred choice for most applications. The addition of
small amounts of impurities, called doping , can drastically alter the
properties of semiconductors. This process leads to the formation of n-type
and p-type semiconductors, which are essential for the creation of electronic
components such as diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits.
Historically, semiconductors became significant in the early 20th century when
researchers discovered that their electrical properties could be modified. The
real breakthrough came in 1947 with the invention of the transistor by
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley at Bell Laboratories.
This invention not only replaced bulky vacuum tubes but also marked the
beginning of the electronics revolution . Since then, semiconductors have
been at the heart of every major technological development, from the first
radios and televisions to modern computers and smartphones.
In today’s world, semiconductors are everywhere. They are used in
computing devices, telecommunication systems, medical instruments,
household appliances, automobiles, and satellites . Without them,
technologies like the internet, mobile communication, renewable energy
systems, and artificial intelligence would not exist. They also play a crucial
role in sustainable energy solutions, as seen in solar cells , which convert
sunlight into electricity, and in energy-efficient lighting like LEDs .
Thus, semiconductors are not just materials of scientific interest; they are the
foundation of the digital age . Their applications touch nearly every aspect
of human life, making them indispensable in shaping the modern world and
future innovations.
3
Historical Background
In 1833 , Michael Faraday observed that the resistance of silver sulfide
decreases as temperature increases, a property opposite to that of metals. This
was one of the earliest indications of semiconductor behavior.
Later in 1874 , Karl Ferdinand Braun discovered the rectifying effect of
crystal contacts, which allowed current to pass in only one direction. This
discovery laid the foundation for diodes. Around the same time, experiments
with selenium revealed its ability to conduct electricity when exposed to light,
marking the beginning of photoconductivity studies .
In the early 20th century, Greenleaf W. Pickard used silicon crystals to build
the crystal detector (1906) , which was an important device in early radio
receivers. These practical applications highlighted the potential of
semiconductors, even though their behavior was not fully understood yet.
The real breakthrough came in 1947 , when John Bardeen, Walter Brattain,
and William Shockley invented the transistor at Bell Laboratories. This
small device could amplify and switch electronic signals, replacing bulky
vacuum tubes and sparking the electronics revolution . In recognition of
their invention, the three scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1956 .
In 1958 , Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce independently developed the
integrated circuit (IC) , which combined multiple transistors on a single
chip. This invention made electronic devices smaller, faster, and more
efficient, leading to the rise of modern computers and microelectronics.
By the late 20th century, semiconductors had become the foundation of nearly
all modern technologies. From calculators and radios to advanced spacecraft
and medical instruments, semiconductors shaped every aspect of progress.
Today, their historical journey continues as they power the digital age ,
enabling technologies like smartphones, solar panels, artificial intelligence,
and renewable energy systems.
4
Types of semiconductors
1. Based on Purity
( a)Intrinsic Semiconductor
●Pure form
●Examples: Pure Silicon (Si) , Germanium (Ge) .
●At room temperature, only a few electrons jump from valence band to
conduction band → limited conductivity.
Both electrons (e⁻) and holes (h⁺) act as charge carriers in equal
●
numbers.
( b) Extrinsic Semiconductor
●Impurities are added (doping) to increase conductivity.
●Two types of doping:
o n-type semiconductor → doped with pentavalent impurities
(e.g., P, As, Sb).
▪Extra electrons are majority carriers.
op-type semiconductor → doped with trivalent impurities (
e.g., B, Al, Ga, In).
▪ Extra holes aremajority carriers.
2. Based on Energy Band Gap (Eg)
●Elemental Semiconductors : Eg ≈ 1.1 eV (Si), 0.66 eV (Ge).
●Compound Semiconductors ( like GaAs, InP, CdS): Eg may be direct
or indirect.
o Direct band gap (e.g., GaAs) → good for LEDs, lasers.
o Indirect band gap (e.g., Si, Ge) → mainly used for transistors,
ICs.
3. Based on Material Composition
●Elemental →Silicon,Germanium.
●Compound →GalliumArsenide (GaAs), Indium Phosphide (InP).
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●Organic Semiconductor →based on carbon compounds,used in
OLEDs
[Link] on Electrical Behavior
● n-type →electronsaremajority carriers.
● p-type →holesaremajority carriers.
Majority
Type Example Application
Carrier
Pure Si, Sensors, basic
Intrinsic Equal e⁻ & h⁺
Ge study
Diodes,
Extrinsic (n-type) Si + P Electrons
transistors
Diodes,
Extrinsic (p-type) Si + B Holes
transistors
Depends
Compound (direct
GaAs on LEDs, lasers
Eg)
doping
Depends
Compound (indirect ICs, solar
Si, Ge on doping
Eg) cells
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Properties of semiconductors
1. Electrical Conductivity
●Conductivity lies between conductors (like Cu) and insulators (like glass) .
●At 0K → behaves like an insulator.
●At room temperature → some electrons gain enough energy to jump from the
valence band to the conduction band , so it conducts a little.
●Conductivity increases with temperature ( opposite of metals).
2. Band Gap (Eg)
●Semiconductors have a small energy gap between valence band and conduction band.
o Si → 1.1 eV (indirect band gap).
o Ge → 0.66 eV.
o GaAs → 1.43 eV (direct band gap).
●This small gap allows electrons to be easily excited by heat, light, or doping .
3. Effect of Doping
●Adding tiny amounts of impurity changes conductivity drastically.
o n-type → extra electrons (negative carriers).
o p-type → extra holes (positive carriers).
●This controllability makes semiconductors the foundation of modern electronics .
4. Temperature Dependence
●As temperature rises , more electrons jump to conduction band.
●Thus, resistance decreases with increasing temperature (negative temperature
coefficient).
5. Carrier Types
●Electrons (e⁻) → negatively charged carriers.
●Holes (h⁺) → absence of an electron, behaves like positive charge.
●In intrinsic semiconductors, n= p (equal electrons and holes).
● In doped semiconductors, one dominates (majority carriers, while the other are
minority carriers).
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[Link] to Light
●Semiconductors can absorb photons → electrons jump across band gap.
Basis of photo-diodes, solar cells, phototransistors .
[Link] Property
●PN junction allows current in one direction only → forms diodes and rectifiers .
[Link] Property
●Heating one side of a semiconductor can create a voltage difference ( Seebeck effect).
Property Semiconductors
Band gap Small (0.1 – 3 eV)
Conductivity Between conductor & insulator
Temperature effect Conductivity ↑ with T
Doping effect Strongly modifies properties
Charge carriers Electrons & holes
Band gap type Direct (GaAs) or Indirect (Si, Ge)
Applications Diodes, transistors, LEDs, solar cells
8
9
Working Principle of Semiconductors
1 . Band Structure
●In a semiconductor, the valence band is full, and the conduction band
is nearly empty.
●A small band gap (0.1 – 3 eV) separates them.
●With enough energy (heat, light, or electric field) , electrons jump from
the valence band → conduction band.
●When this happens:
o An electron becomes free to move (negative charge carrier).
o A hole is left behind in the valence band (positive charge carrier).
2. Charge Transport
●Electrons move in the conduction band under applied voltage.
●Holes behave like moving positive charges in the valence band.
●Thus, current = flow of electrons + flow of holes .
3. Effect of Doping
●Pure semiconductor (intrinsic) : Equal number of electrons and holes →
low conductivity.
Doped semiconductor (extrinsic):
●
o n-type: Extra electrons (majority carriers)
dominate. o p-type: Extra holes (majority carriers) dominate.
●Doping makes semiconductors much more useful and tunable.
4. Response to External Energy
● Heat → increases electron-hole pairs (conductivity rises).
● Lightphotons(hv≥Eg) → create electron-hole pairs → used in solar
cells,photodiodes.
● Electricfield → controls charge flow → basis of transistors and
diodes.
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5 . PN Junction (Core of Devices)
●When p-type and n-type materials join, a PN junction forms.
●At the junction:
o Electrons diffuse into p-side, holes diffuse into n-side → forming
depletion region .
o Depletion region acts like a barrier.
●Applying external voltage:
o Forward bias → current flows (barrier reduces). o Reversebias
→ very little current flows (barrier increases).
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Semiconductor Devices and Applications
1 . Diode(PNJunctionDiode)
●Working: Allowscurrentin one direction only ( rectification).
● Types: Zenerdiode,LED,Photodiode, Tunnel diode.
●Applications:
o Power rectifiers (AC → DC conversion) o Voltage regulators
(Zener diode) o Light emission (LEDs)
o Light detection (photodiodes, solar cells)
2. Transistor
●Types:
o BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor) → uses electrons + holes.
o FET (Field Effect Transistor) →uses electric field to control
current.
● Working: Acts as a switch or amplifier by controlling small input
current/voltage to regulate larger output current.
● Applications:
o Amplifiers (radios, speakers)
o Digital logic circuits (computers, microchips) o Switching devices
(power electronics)
3. LED (Light Emitting Diode)
●Working: Inaforward-biasedPNjunction, electrons recombine with
holes→releaseenergyas light (photons) .
● Applications:
o Indicators and displays o Street lighting, automotive lighting o
TVs, monitors, and mobile displays
4. Photodiode
Working: Converts light into electric current (reverse-biased PN junction).
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● Applications:
o Solar panels
o Light sensors (cameras, smoke detectors)
o Optical communication (fiber optics)
5. Solar Cell
●Working: Special photodiode that generates electricity when exposed to
sunlight(photovoltaic effect).
● Applications:
o Renewable energy (solar panels) o Spacecraft power supply o
Solar calculators, chargers
6. SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) / Thyristor
●Working: Actsasacontrolledswitch(triggered by a small gate signal).
●Applications:
o Motor speed control
o Power regulation in industries
o Inverters and UPS systems
7 . MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET)
●Working: Voltage-controlleddevice;formsthe backbone of ICs and
microprocessors.
● Applications:
o Microchips (CPUs, memory) o Power amplifiers
o Switching regulators (SMPS, DC-DC converters)
Device Type Applications
PN Diode Rectifier AC to DC conversion
Zener Diode Voltage regulator Stabilized power supply
LED Light emitter Indicators, displays
Photodiode Light detector Solar cells, sensors
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BJT Amplifier/switch Radios, computers
Device Type Applications
MOSFET Voltage-controlled switch Microchips, power electronics
SCR/Thyristo Controlled rectifier Motor control, UPS
r
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Bibliography
● NCERT Physics- class12
● [Link]-principle of electronics
● Semiconductor Industry Association Reports
● S. M. Sze & Kwok K. Ng –PhysicsofSemiconductor Devices (Wiley, 3
rd Edition)
● Modern’s ABC of Physics (Class 12)
● Together With Physics (Class 12) –RachnaSagar Publications
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