📘 UNIT–1: WIRELESS COMMUNICATION FUNDAMENTALS — CHEAT SHEET (1.1 to 1.

5)

1.1 INTRODUCTION – WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

✔ Definition

Wireless communication = transmitting information without wires, using electromagnetic waves (radio,
microwave, infrared, optical).

✔ Need for Wireless Communication

1. Mobility & Flexibility – communicate while moving.

2. Easy Installation – no cables, quick setup.
3. Cost-Effective – cheaper for rural/large areas.
4. Supports Modern Tech – IoT, smart cities, sensors, automation.

✔ Types of Wireless Communication

Type Key Points Used In

Radio Low/medium frequency AM/FM, walkie-talkies

Microwave High frequency, long distance Cellular, satellite

Infrared Short-range, line-of-sight TV remotes, sensors

Bluetooth Short range, low power Wearables, devices

Wi-Fi High-speed LAN Homes, offices

Optical/Li-Fi Very fast, secure Alternative to Wi-Fi

✔ Applications

Mobile phones, Wi-Fi, satellites, remote sensing, industry automation, medical wearables.

1.2 EVOLUTION OF WIRELESS COMMUNICATION (1G → 4G)

Generation Technology Data Key Features

1G Analog, FDMA Voice only Poor quality, no security

2G Digital, GSM(TDMA), CDMA kbps SMS, MMS, encrypted, GPRS/EDGE

Generation Technology Data Key Features

3G UMTS, CDMA2000 Mbps Internet, video calls, apps

4G LTE, WiMAX 100+ Mbps All-IP, HD streaming, low delay

✔ Advantages of Evolution

• Higher speeds
• Better voice quality
• Stronger security
• Supports multimedia & apps

✔ Disadvantages

• Higher cost of infrastructure

• Devices must upgrade
• Battery usage increases

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF WIRELESS CHANNEL

1️⃣ Path Loss

Loss of signal strength with distance.

Causes: distance, obstacles, high frequency.
Impact: weak signals.
Solution: higher power, repeaters, good antennas.

2️⃣ Fading

Fluctuations in signal due to multipath.

• Slow fading: buildings, terrain

• Fast fading: movement
Impact: drops, errors
Solution: diversity, equalizers

3️⃣ Doppler Shift

Frequency change due to motion.

Impact: synchronization issues
Solution: adaptive tracking
4️⃣ Delay Spread

Signals arrive at different times.

Impact: ISI (Inter-Symbol Interference)
Solution: equalization, OFDM, guard intervals.

5️⃣ Interference

Other signals disturb the main signal.

Sources: Wi-Fi, microwaves, users
Impact: low SNR, errors
Solution: filtering, spread spectrum, power control

6️⃣ Noise

Random unwanted signals (thermal, atmospheric).

Model: AWGN
Impact: limits performance
Solution: filters, coding

1.4 2G, 3G, 4G WIRELESS STANDARDS

2G (Digital Voice Era)

• Standards: GSM (TDMA), CDMA

• Features: Digital voice, SMS, MMS, encryption
• Data: GPRS, EDGE
• Speed: kbps
Advantage: secure, better voice
Disadvantage: slow internet

3G (Mobile Internet Era)

• Standards: UMTS/WCDMA, CDMA2000

• Speed: up to 2 Mbps
• Features: Internet, video calls, roaming, apps
Advantages: multimedia, higher speed
Disadvantages: expensive spectrum, battery drain

4G (High-Speed All-IP Era)

• Standard: LTE
• Technology: OFDMA (DL), SC-FDMA (UL)
 • Speed: 100+ Mbps
• Features: HD streaming, VoLTE, gaming, cloud apps
Advantages: high speed, low latency
Disadvantages: expensive infrastructure

1.5 CELLULAR WIRELESS NETWORKS

✔ What is a Cellular Network?

Large area divided into cells, each with a base station for communication.

✔ Why Cellular?

• Higher capacity
• Better coverage
• Less interference

Key Components

1. Cells – hexagonal regions (ideal)

2. Base Station (BS) – controls each cell
3. MSC (Mobile Switching Center) – connects BSs, PSTN, routing

⚡ Frequency Reuse

• Same frequency reused in far-away cells.

• Increases capacity without extra spectrum.
• Very important exam concept.

⚡ Handoff (Handover)

• Transfer of call/data when user moves between cells.

• Should be smooth without dropping the call.

✔ Types of Cells
Cell Type Coverage Use

Macro Large (km) Rural, highways

Micro Medium Cities

Pico Very small Malls, buildings

Femto Home/office Indoor

🚀 UNIT–2 CHEAT SHEET (2.1 to 2.8) — BEST EXAM NOTES

✅ 2.1 Introduction to Wireless Networking

Wireless networks: communication without cables using radio signals.

Challenges in Wireless Networks

• Changing topology (nodes move)

• Limited bandwidth
• Frequent link breakages
• Interference, noise
• Unstable connections

Routing in Wireless Networks

Routing = finding best path source → destination.

Types of Routing Protocols

Type Meaning Advantage Disadvantage

Proactive Maintains routes always No delay High overhead

Reactive Creates route when needed Saves bandwidth Route discovery delay

Hybrid Mix of both Balanced Complex

✅ 2.2 Components, Protocols & Standards

A. Components

1. Nodes

Devices that send/receive/forward data.

Examples: smartphones, routers, switches, servers.

Types:

• Mobile nodes (phones, laptops)

• Fixed nodes (routers, base stations)
2. Links

Paths connecting nodes.

Types:

• Wired (fiber, copper)

• Wireless (radio, microwaves)

Challenges: interference, fading, signal loss, limited bandwidth.

3. Protocols

Rules for communication.

Protocol Functions:

• Format → structure of data

• Timing → when to send
• Sequencing → correct order
• Error Control → ACK, retransmission

Examples: TCP, IP, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, 802.11.

4. Standards

Ensure interoperability, compatibility.

Organizations:

• IEEE → Wi-Fi, Bluetooth

• ITU → 3️G/4️G/5️G, frequency rules
• ISO → OSI model
• IETF → TCP/IP, HTTP, DNS

✅ 2.3 Network & Protocol Architecture

Architecture = layered framework that standardizes communication.

Why Needed?

• Interoperability
• Easy troubleshooting
• Clear separation of tasks
Two Major Models

1. OSI Model — 7 Layers (theoretical)

2. TCP/IP Model — 4 Layers (practical)

Both ensure standard communication.

✅ 2.4 OSI Model — 7 Layers

Mnemonic: Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away

Layer Function

1. Physical Signals, hardware, bits

2. Data Link Framing, MAC address, error detection

3. Network Routing, IP addressing

4. Transport End-to-end delivery, TCP/UDP

5. Session Establish/close sessions

6. Presentation Data translation, encryption

7. Application User services (HTTP, FTP, SMTP)

Key Features:

• Layer-to-layer communication
• Modular design
• Conceptual but essential

✅ 2.5 TCP/IP Model — 4 Layers

Mnemonic: NITA
(N) Network Interface
(I) Internet
(T) Transport
(A) Application

1. Network Interface Layer

• Physical + Data Link

 • MAC addressing, frame transmission

2. Internet Layer

• Routing, IP addressing
• Protocol: IP

3. Transport Layer

• Reliable/unreliable delivery
• TCP, UDP

4. Application Layer

• HTTP, SMTP, FTP, DNS

• Combines OSI Session + Presentation + Application

Key Points:

• Practical model
• Used in real internet

✅ 2.6 Network Topology — Types

1. Bus

• All devices on one cable

Pros: Simple, cheap
Cons: Backbone failure kills network

2. Star

• Connected to central hub/switch

Pros: Easy to manage
Cons: Central device failure

3. Ring

• Circular connection
Pros: Fewer collisions
Cons: Break anywhere → network down
4. Mesh

• Every device connects to every other

Pros: Most reliable
Cons: Expensive, complex

5. Tree

• Hierarchical (stars connected on backbone)

Pros: Scalable
Cons: Backbone critical

6. Hybrid

• Mix of two or more topologies

Pros: Flexible
Cons: Expensive, complex

✅ 2.7 Transmission Modes

Direction of data flow between devices.

1. Simplex

• One-way
Examples: keyboard → PC, TV broadcast

2. Half-Duplex

• Two-way but not at the same time

Examples: walkie-talkie

3. Full-Duplex

• Two-way simultaneously
Examples: telephone, modern Ethernet

✅ 2.8 Routing in Mobile Environments

Mobile networks = dynamic, frequent topology changes.

1. Proactive Routing (Table-Driven)

Example: DSDV
How it works:

• Maintains routing table for every node

• Periodic updates

Pros: No delay
Cons: High overhead

2. Reactive Routing (On-Demand)

Examples: AODV, DSR

How it works:

• Route discovery using RREQ/RREP

• DSR stores entire route in header

Pros: Saves bandwidth

Cons: Initial delay

3. Hybrid Routing

Example: ZRP

How it works:

• Inside zone → proactive

• Outside zone → reactive

Pros: Balanced approach

Cons: Complex design

⭐ FINAL REVISION TABLE

Topic Key Points

Components Nodes, Links, Protocols, Standards

OSI Layers 7 layers, conceptual

TCP/IP Layers 4 layers, real-world

Topologies Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh, Tree, Hybrid

 Topic Key Points

Transmission Modes Simplex, Half, Full

Routing Types Proactive, Reactive, Hybrid

✅ UNIT – 3 Cheat Sheet: Medium Access Control (MAC) in Wireless Networks

⭐ 3.1 Introduction – MAC in Wireless Networks

Why MAC is needed?

Because wireless devices share the same radio channel → leads to:

• Interference
• Fading
• Hidden terminal
• Exposed terminal
• No collision detection

MAC layer goals:

✔ Avoid collisions
✔ Improve throughput
✔ Ensure fair access
✔ Reliable communication

Types of MAC Protocols

1) Contention-Based (Random Access)

Examples: ALOHA, Slotted ALOHA, CSMA/CA

Features:

• No central control
• Collisions happen
• Simple, flexible
• Good for dynamic networks

2) Reservation-Based (Scheduled Access)

Examples: TDMA, FDMA, CDMA

Features:

• Collision-free
• Synchronized
• Suitable for QoS traffic
• Complex

IEEE 802.11 MAC uses:

• CSMA/CA
• RTS/CTS for hidden node
• Supports DCF, PCF
⭐ 3.2 MAC Issues in Wireless Environments

3.2.1 Shared Medium & Interference

• All users share air → collisions

• Interference from other wireless devices

3.2.2 Fading & Attenuation

• Signal weakens with distance

• Obstacles cause multipath fading
• Impacts carrier sensing & ACK reception

3.2.3 Mobility

• Changing topology
• Varying signal quality
• Need handoff support

3.2.4 No Collision Detection

• Wireless = half-duplex
• Cannot listen + transmit simultaneously
• → Use CSMA/CA, NOT CSMA/CD

⭐ 3.2.5 Hidden & Exposed Node Problems

Hidden Node Problem

A→B←C
A and C cannot hear each other but collide at B.

💡 Solution: RTS/CTS

Exposed Node Problem

B→A
C hears B but wants to send to D.
Transmission is actually safe, but C unnecessarily waits.

💡 Issue: Medium underutilization

3.2.6 Asymmetric Links

Signal strength not same both ways → ACK failure, sensing issues.

3.2.7 Variable Capacity Links

Capacity changes with distance, fading → MAC must adapt rate, retry, timeout.

⭐ 3.3 Contention-Based Protocols

Features

• Random access
• Simple
• Collisions possible
• Backoff used
• Good for dynamic networks

⭐ 3.3.1 CSMA/CA (Used in Wi-Fi)

Steps

1. Sense channel
2. If idle → wait DIFS
3. Use random backoff
4. Transmit
5. Receiver sends ACK
6. No ACK → collision → retry with doubled CW

⭐ Interframe Spaces (IFS)

IFS Priority Usage

SIFS Highest ACK, CTS

PIFS Medium PCF

DIFS Normal Data transmission (DCF)

EIFS Lowest After corrupted frame

💡 Order: SIFS < PIFS < DIFS < EIFS

⭐ DCF Operation

• Sense channel
• Wait DIFS
• Choose random backoff
• If backoff reaches 0 → transmit
• Receive ACK

⭐ Backoff Algorithm

• Choose k randomly from 0 to CW

• Backoff time = k × SlotTime
• After collision → CW = 2 × CW
(Binary Exponential Backoff)
• After success → CW = CWmin

⭐ RTS/CTS Mechanism

Used to avoid collisions (especially hidden node).

Steps

1. Sender → RTS
2. Receiver → CTS
3. Others update NAV
4. Sender → DATA
5. Receiver → ACK

Purpose:

• Hidden node solution

• Channel reservation
• Better reliability

⭐ Advantages & Disadvantages of CSMA/CA

Advantages

✔ Reduces collisions
✔ RTS/CTS solves hidden node
✔ Fair (backoff)
✔ Fully distributed

Disadvantages

✘ More overhead
✘ Throughput drops with more users
✘ Exposed node still unsolved
✘ High delay in congestion

⭐ ALOHA

🌿 Pure ALOHA

• Transmit anytime
• If no ACK → collision → retry

Vulnerable period = 2Tf

Max efficiency = 18%

Advantages

✔ Simple
✔ No sync needed

Disadvantages

✘ Very high collisions

✘ Low throughput

⭐ Slotted ALOHA

• Time divided into fixed slots

• Transmit only at slot start

Vulnerable period = Tf
Max efficiency = 36.8%
Pros

✔ Higher efficiency
✔ Fewer collisions

Cons

✘ Needs time sync

✘ Slots wasted when idle

⭐ 3.4 Reservation-Based Protocols

Better for QoS, VoIP, video, guaranteed bandwidth.

⭐ 3.4.1 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

Working

• Time → frames → slots

• Each user gets 1 slot
• Guard time prevents overlap

Advantages

✔ Collision-free
✔ Good for voice
✔ Full bandwidth in slot

Disadvantages

✘ Needs sync
✘ Idle slots waste bandwidth

⭐ 3.4.2 FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

Working

• Spectrum split into frequency channels

• Each user gets one frequency
• Guard bands prevent overlap
Advantages

✔ Simple
✔ Low delay
✔ Continuous transmission

Disadvantages

✘ Limited users
✘ Guard bands waste spectrum

⭐ 3.4.3 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

Working

• All users share same frequency

• Each user has a unique code (PN code)
• Spread Spectrum → wideband
• Receiver correlates code to extract data

Near-Far Problem

Nearby user's strong signal drowns far user.

Solution: Power Control

Advantages

✔ High capacity
✔ Soft handoff
✔ Secure & robust

Disadvantages

✘ Complex
✘ Requires strong power control

⭐ 3.4.4 IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol

MAC Functions

1. DCF (Mandatory) – CSMA/CA

2. PCF (Optional) – polling by AP
⭐ [Link] IEEE 802.11 Frame Types

1. Management Frames

• Beacon
• Authentication
• Association
• Probe

2. Control Frames

• RTS
• CTS
• ACK
• PS-Poll

3. Data Frames

• User data
• Carry IP packets

⭐ MAC Frame Format (Simplified)

1. Frame Control
2. Duration / ID
3. Address 1 (Receiver)
4. Address 2 (Transmitter)
5. Address 3 (Original sender/receiver)
6. Address 4 (Only in WDS)
7. Sequence Control
8. Data
9. FCS

⭐ [Link] Fragmentation

Why needed?

• Wireless has high error rate

• Large frame → high loss probability
• Fragmentation reduces retransmission cost
How it works?

• Large MSDU split into fragments (MPDUs)

• Each fragment has:
✔ Header
✔ Sequence number
✔ CRC
✔ ACK

If one fragment fails → only that part retransmitted.

✅ UNIT-4 CHEAT SHEET (4.1 – 4.7)

Wireless Networking, Multiple Access, Mobile IP/WAP, Wireless Systems, Standards, Ad-hoc Networks,
Bluetooth

4.1 Wireless Networking — Cheat Sheet

Definition:

Communication between devices without cables, using RF, IR, satellite signals.

Key Features:

• Mobility
• Flexibility
• Cost-effective
• Remote accessibility

Core Technologies / Standards:

• Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

• Bluetooth
• Zigbee (IoT)
• Cellular: 4G/5G

Components:

• Access Points
• Routers
• Network Interface Cards (NICs)

Types:
Type Example Range Usage

PAN Bluetooth Few meters Wearables

LAN Wi-Fi Building Home/Office

WAN 4G/5G City/Country Internet

WSN IoT sensors Varied Monitoring

 Type Example Range Usage

MANET Mobile nodes Dynamic Military/Disaster

Advantages:

• No cabling
• Easy installation
• Mobility
• Supports IoT

Challenges:

• Interference
• Security risks
• Limited bandwidth

Recent Advancements:

• Better encryption
• Improved signal processing
• Efficient spectrum use

4.2 Multiple Access Techniques — Cheat Sheet

Definition:

Allow multiple users to share the same communication channel efficiently.

Purpose:

• Spectrum efficiency
• Reduce interference
• Increase system capacity

Techniques:

1. FDMA

• Frequency bands per user

• Example: 1G
• Advantages: Simple, continuous transmission
• Disadvantages: Bandwidth wastage, complex filters
2. TDMA

• Time slots per user

• Example: GSM (2G)
• Advantages: Good efficiency
• Disadvantages: Needs synchronization

3. CDMA

• Codes separate users

• Example: 3G
• Advantages: High capacity, interference-resistant, soft handoff
• Disadvantages: Complex processing, strict power control

4. OFDMA

• Subcarriers assigned to users

• Example: 4G/5G
• Advantages: High data rate, low latency

5. SDMA

• Uses spatial separation (MIMO, beamforming)

• Example: 5G massive MIMO
• Advantages: High capacity, less interference

4.3 Mobile IP & Mobile WAP — Cheat Sheet

A) Mobile IP

Definition:

Allows a device to retain the same IP address while moving across networks.

Need:

Traditional IP breaks connection when IP changes — Mobile IP prevents this.

Entities:

• Mobile Node (MN)

• Home Agent (HA)
• Foreign Agent (FA)
• Care-of Address (CoA)

Working:

1. MN moves → gets CoA

2. Registers with HA
3. HA maps permanent IP → CoA
4. HA tunnels packets to FA
5. FA delivers to MN

Mechanisms:

• Tunneling
• Encapsulation
• CoA

Advantages:

• Seamless mobility
• Permanent IP
• Works with Wi-Fi/3G/4G/5G

Disadvantages:

• Latency due to tunneling

• Security risks
• Needs extra infrastructure

B) Mobile WAP

Definition:

Protocol to access the internet on early mobile phones.

Key Features:

• Works on low bandwidth

• Uses WML
• Dedicated protocol stack
WAP Architecture:
Layer Protocol Function

App WAE Runs WML apps

Session WSP Sessions

Transaction WTP Requests & responses

Security WTLS Encryption

Transport WDP Network interface

Working:

Mobile → WAP Gateway → Server → Converts HTML to WML → Back to mobile

Advantages:

• Works on basic phones

• Low bandwidth usage

Disadvantages:

• Limited features
• Slow
• Obsolete now

4.4 Wireless Systems — Cheat Sheet

Definition:

Systems that communicate using electromagnetic waves (no cables).

Types:

1. Cellular Systems (2G/3G/4G/5G)

• Large coverage
• Supports roaming and mobility

2. WLAN (Wi-Fi)

• Short range
 • Home/Office usage

3. WPAN

• Very short range

• Bluetooth, Zigbee

4. Satellite Systems

• Global coverage
• GPS, broadcasting

5. Microwave Systems

• Line-of-sight
• Telecom backbone links

Performance Factors:

• Bandwidth
• Interference
• Noise
• Environment

Enhancement Technologies:

• MIMO
• Beamforming
• Spread spectrum

Security:

• Encryption
• Authentication
• Secure routing

Advantages:

• Mobility
• Easy installation
• Global communication
Disadvantages:

• Interference
• Security risks
• Limited bandwidth

4.5 Wireless Standards — Cheat Sheet

Definition:

Specifications that define wireless communication rules.

Major Standards:

1. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

• 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax/be
• Wi-Fi 6/6E/7: high speed, low latency

2. Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15)

• Short-range
• Bluetooth 5.3 latest

3. Cellular Standards (3GPP):

• 2️G → Voice
• 3️G → Data
• 4️G → Broadband
• 5️G → High speed, IoT
• 6G → AI-driven future

4. IoT Standards:

• Zigbee
• Z-Wave
• LoRaWAN
• NFC
WLAN (Wi-Fi) Summary Table:
Standard Speed Band

802.11b 11 Mbps 2.4 GHz

802.11g 54 Mbps 2.4 GHz

802.11n 600 Mbps 2.4/5 GHz

802.11ac 1 Gbps 5 GHz

802.11ax Multi-Gbps 2.4/5/6 GHz

Security Protocols:

• WPA2
• WPA3

4.6 Ad-hoc Networks — Cheat Sheet

Definition:

Decentralized wireless network with no infrastructure.

Each node = router + host.

Features:

• No routers
• Self-organizing
• Dynamic topology
• Multi-hop communication

Types:

1. MANET – mobile nodes

2. VANET – vehicle networks
3. WSN – sensor networks

Routing Protocols:

• AODV (On-demand)
• DSDV (Table-based)
• DSR (Source routing)

Security Issues:

• Eavesdropping
 • Spoofing
• DoS attacks

Solutions:

• Encryption
• Authentication
• Trust-based methods

Applications:

• IoT
• Disaster recovery
• Military
• Smart cities
• Environmental monitoring

4.7 Bluetooth — Cheat Sheet

Definition:

Short-range wireless technology (2.4 GHz band) using FHSS.

Features:

• Low power
• Short range (~10 m)
• Easy pairing
• Secure

Versions:

• 1️.0 → basic
• 2️.0 → EDR
• 4️.0 → BLE introduced
• 5️.x → Long range, fast, energy efficient

Profiles:

• A2DP: audio
• HID: keyboard/mouse
• BLE: IoT devices

Mesh Networking:

• Multi-device communication
 • Smart lighting, IoT

Security:

• Encryption
• Authentication
• Protection from bluejacking, bluesnarfing

Advantages:

• Low power
• Cheap
• Widely supported
• Simple

Applications:

• Earbuds, speakers
• Wearables
• Smart home
• IoT
• Input devices
✅ UNIT-5 CHEAT SHEET (5.1 – 5.8)

Routing in Wireless Networks, MAC Schemes, Protocol Layers, Congestion, Reliability, MANETs,
Sensor Networks

5.1 Introduction to Wireless Communication Networks — Cheat Sheet

Definition:
Wireless networks allow communication between devices using radio waves, microwaves, or infrared
instead of cables.

Key Features:
• Mobility
• Flexible deployment
• Easy scaling
• Supports large coverage
• Remote communication

Challenges:
• Interference
• Hidden/exposed terminal problems
• Limited bandwidth
• Error-prone channel

Core Concepts:
• Medium Access (MAC)
• Routing
• Reliability
• Congestion control

Technologies Used:
• Wi-Fi
• Cellular (4️G/5️G)
• Bluetooth
• WSN / MANET

Why Wireless Needs Special Protocols?

• Shared medium
• Frequent topology changes
• Unpredictable link quality
5.2 Medium Access Schemes (MAC) — Cheat Sheet

Definition:
Methods to allow multiple wireless users to share the same channel efficiently.

Purpose:
• Avoid collisions
• Improve channel utilization
• Reduce interference
• Increase system capacity

Core MAC Techniques:

1. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

• Users get time slots

• Used in GSM
Advantages: No interference, simple
Disadvantages: Needs synchronization

2. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

• Users get frequency bands

• Used in 1️G
Advantages: Continuous transmission
Disadvantages: Bandwidth wastage

3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

• Unique codes for each user

• Used in 3️G
Advantages: High capacity, secure
Disadvantages: Complex, strict power control

4. OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access)

• Subcarriers assigned to users

• Used in 4G/5G
Advantages: High speed, low delay

5. CSMA / CSMA-CA

• Sense channel before transmitting

• Used in Wi-Fi (802.11)
Advantages: Simple
Issues: Hidden terminal, collisions

6. SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)

• Uses antennas & beamforming

• Used in 5G MIMO
Advantages: Very high capacity

Design Considerations for MAC Schemes:

To design an efficient MAC scheme, key factors include:

1. Throughput
2. Latency
3. Fairness
4. Energy Efficiency
5. Complexity

Common Issues in Wireless Access:

• Hidden Terminal Problem:

• Exposed Terminal Problem:

• Channel Variability

5.3 Communication Protocol Layers — Cheat Sheet

Wireless systems follow layered architecture (OSI / TCP-IP).

Layers & Functions:

1. Physical Layer

• Modulation, coding, frequency selection

• Deals with noise, fading, interference

2. Data Link Layer (MAC + LLC)

• Channel access
• Error detection & correction
• Handles hidden/exposed terminals
3. Network Layer

• Routing (AODV, DSR, DSDV)

• Addressing
• Fragmentation

4. Transport Layer

• Reliability (TCP/UDP)
• Congestion & flow control

5. Application Layer

• HTTP, FTP, VoIP, IoT applications

Why Layering is Important:

• Simplifies design
• Ensures interoperability
• Modular troubleshooting

5.4 Routing Strategies — Cheat Sheet

Definition:
Selecting the best path for data in wireless networks where nodes may move frequently.

Challenges:
• Dynamic topology
• Limited battery
• Unstable links
• Scalability

Types of Routing:

1. Proactive Routing

• Maintains routing tables

• Examples: DSDV, OLSR
Advantages: Low delay
Disadvantages: High overhead

2. Reactive Routing

• Creates route only when needed

• Examples: AODV, DSR
Advantages: Saves bandwidth
Disadvantages: Initial delay

3. Hybrid Routing

• Mix of proactive + reactive

• Example: ZRP
Advantages: Balanced performance

Other Routing Methods:

• Energy-efficient routing (for WSN)
• Multipath routing (improves reliability)
• Geographic routing (uses GPS)
• QoS routing (for multimedia)

Applications:
• MANETs
• WSNs
• VANETs

5.5 Network Reliability — Cheat Sheet

Definition:
Ability of the network to deliver data accurately and consistently despite failures, mobility, or noise.

Factors Affecting Reliability:

• Noise & interference
• Link failures
• Node mobility
• Congestion
• Limited battery
• Unstable wireless medium

Techniques to Improve Reliability:

• Error control (ARQ, FEC)
• Acknowledgements
• Retransmissions
• Redundant routing paths
• Clustering (WSN)
• SDN-based fault management

Outcomes of Poor Reliability:

• Packet loss
• Low throughput
• High delay
• Connection breakdown
Strategies to Achieve Network Reliability:
1. Physical & Data Link Layer Techniques:

• Error Detection & Correction Codes: Identify and correct transmission errors
• Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ): Retransmit lost or corrupted packets
• Adaptive Modulation: Adjust transmission parameters based on channel quality
• MAC Protocols: Coordinate access to reduce collisions and retransmissions

2. Higher-Layer Techniques:

• Acknowledgment Schemes (ACK/NACK) — confirm packet delivery

• Retransmission Timers — resend lost packets
• Sequence Numbering — ensures packets arrive in order

Reliability in Dynamic Networks (MANETs & Sensor Networks):

• Challenges:
o Node mobility or failure → broken routes
o Dynamic topology → disrupted paths
• Solutions:
o Multipath Routing: Maintain multiple paths for quick switch if primary fails
o Clustering & Redundancy: Improves data availability and survivability
o Energy-Aware Design: Reliability balanced with battery efficiency

Congestion Control & Load Balancing:

• Techniques:
o Congestion avoidance algorithms
o Traffic regulation
o Priority for critical data
o Efficient buffer management

5.6 Congestion Issues — Cheat Sheet

Definition:
Congestion occurs when network traffic > network capacity → causing delay & packet loss.

Causes:
• Shared medium
• High node density
• Mobility
• Limited bandwidth
• Long routing paths
• Buffer overflow

Effects:
• Increased delay
• Dropped packets
• Reduced throughput
• Poor QoS

Congestion Control Methods:

• transport layer

TCP congestion control

• MAC layer

MAC backoff (CSMA-CA)

• Network layer

Load balancing routing

• Priority-based scheduling
• Cross-layer optimization

Solutions:
• Adjust transmission rate
• Queue management
• Avoid congested routes

5.7 MANETs (Mobile Ad-hoc Networks) — Cheat Sheet

Definition:
Self-organizing wireless network with no fixed infrastructure. Each node acts as a host and a router.

Features:
• Infrastructure-less
• Dynamic topology
• Multi-hop routing
• Decentralized
• Self-healing

Types of Ad-hoc Networks:

• MANET
• VANET
• WSN

Routing Protocols:
• AODV – On-demand
• DSR – Source routing
• DSDV – Table-driven
• OLSR – Optimized proactive

Issues in MANETs:
• Limited battery
• Security threats
• Rapid topology changes
• Hidden terminals
• Congestion

Applications:
• Military communication
• Disaster recovery
• IoT
• Smart cities
• Temporary networks

5.8 Sensor Networks (WSN) — Cheat Sheet

Definition:
Network of small, low-power sensor nodes used to monitor physical conditions and send data to a base
station.

Characteristics:
• Large-scale deployment
• Limited power & memory
• Self-organizing
• Multi-hop communication
• Harsh environments

Architecture:
• Sensor nodes
• Cluster heads
• Base station

Communication:
• TDMA/CSMA MAC
• Energy-efficient routing

Key Protocols:
• LEACH – Clustering
• TEEN / HEED – Energy-efficient
• Directed Diffusion – Data-centric

Challenges:
• Energy constraints
• Node failures
• Security
• Scalability
• Unreliable wireless links

Applications:
• Environmental monitoring
• Agriculture
• Smart cities
• Healthcare
• Industrial automation

Advantages:
• Low cost
• Easy to deploy
• Supports automation

Disadvantages:
• Limited battery
• Vulnerable to attacks
• Limited range

5.9 Cellular Network Concepts

Key Ideas

• Network divided into cells

• Each cell has Base Station
• Frequency reuse
• Handoff for mobility
• Supports 1️G → 5️G evolution

Architecture

• Mobile Station
• Base Station Subsystem
• Core Network (MSC, HLR, VLR, etc.)

Generation Overview

• 1G: Analog
• 2G: GSM/CDMA
• 3G: UMTS
• 4G: LTE
• 5G: Massive IoT, high speed
5.10 Software Defined Networking (SDN)

Concept

Separates:

• Control plane (decisions)

• Data plane (forwarding)

Central controller manages entire network via OpenFlow.

Advantages

• Centralized, automated control

• Dynamic routing
• Congestion & fault management
• Faster deployment of services
• Network slicing (5G, IoT)

SDN in Wireless

• Adaptive resource allocation

• Better mobility management
• Enhanced security
• Supports heterogeneous networks (Wi-Fi + 5G)

5.11 GSM & Evolution

GSM Introduction

• Popular digital cellular system

• Uses TDMA
• Supports voice, SMS, basic data
• Uses SIM for identity

Architecture

• BSS: BTS, BSC

 • NSS: MSC, HLR, VLR, AuC
• OSS

Evolution

GPRS (2.5G)

• Packet-switching
• 30–80 kbps

EDGE (2.75G)

• Better modulation
• Up to 250 kbps

Foundation for 3️G → 4️G → 5️G