DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING AND

ASSEMBLY
Course Code:A70339,JNTUH R-15
IV B-TECH, I-SEM

Prepared By
Mr. A. Venuprasad , Assistant Professor.
Mechanical Engineering.

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

(Autonomous)
Dundigal, Hyderabad - 500 043

1
 UNIT I

INTRODUCTION
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
DEFINITION OF DESIGN

2
 UNIT 1

“Design establishes and defines solutions to and pertinant

structures for problems not solved before , or new solutions to
problems which have previously been solved in a different way”
“Ability to design combines science and art”
“the form , parts , or details of something according to a plan”
“Analysis and synthesis”
Decomposing into smaller parts.
Analysis → calculation of behavior of part
Simplification of real through models.
Synthesis => Identification of design elements that comprise , its
decomposition into parts , and the combination of the part
solutions into a total workable system
3
 Four ̀C ̒s of Design

1 Creativity
Something not existed before
2 Complexity
Decisions on many variables
3 Choice
Between many possible solutions at all levels
4 Compromise
Balancing multiple and sometimes comflicting
requirements

4
 “ A professional engineer can create many designs and have the
satisfaction of seeing , them become working realities”

“ A scientist can discover a new star but an engineer can create one
for him”

5
 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

Market Cost committed

% Product Manufacturing
development design
Of
Product
Conceptual Product
Cost design use
committed

Cost
incurred

Time ( non linear)

Product cost Commitment during phases of the design process

6
 “ Decisions made in the design process cost very little in terms of
the overall product cost but have a major effect on the cost of the
product.”

“You cannot compensate in manufacturing for defects introduced in

the design phase”

“The design process should be conducted so as to develop quality ,

cost – competitive products in the shortest time possible”

7
 TYPES OF DESIGNS
Original design → Innovation
eg: Microprocessor
Adaptive design → Novel application
eg: inkjet printing concept
for rapid prototyping
Redesign : Without any change in concept
of the original design
variant design : changing some of the design
parameters
Selection design : Selecting the components with
the needed performance ,
quality and cost from the catalogs
of potential vendors
Industrial design : Appeal of product to human senses
8
 General
Information

Specific Design operation Outcome

Information

NO Yes
Evaluation
Feed back loop Go to
Next step

9
 Basic Module in the design process

Eg: Maximum performance at minimum weight

• Aircraft

• Car

• Rocket

• Missiles

10
 Existing State of
Knowledge The art

Scientific Identification
curiosity Of need

Communi
Hypothesis Acceptance Conceptualization
cation

Logical Feasibility
analysis analysis

Proof Production

Scientific method Design method

Comparison between scientific method and design method

11
 PROBLEM SOLVING METHODLOGY
1 Problem definition
2 Information collection
3 Finding alternative solutions
4 Evaluation of alternatives and decision making
5 Communication of the results

12
1 Needs analysis
2 Technical reports (sponsored R&D) trade journals , patents
Catalogs , handbooks , literature of vendors and suppliers of
material and equipment
What ? Need
Where ? To find
How ? Accuracy
How ? Interpret
When ? Enough
What ? Decisions
3 Creativity , stimulation , physical principles and
quantitative reasoning , ability

13
4 Best among several options
- Simulation & testing
- Prototype
5 Needs of customer
Detailed drawings , computer programs , 3-D Computer models ,
Working models

Good Design
Performance
Life cycle
Social and regulatory issues

14
 DESIGN PROCESS

Define problem

Gather information
Conceptual design

Phase I Concept generation

Evaluation of concepts

Product Configuration Parametric Detail

Architecture Design Design design
(arrangement (Modelling (DFM) Phase III
Of elements) & Sizing) Robust design (Drgs & Specs)
tolerances
Embodiment
Phase II 15
PHASE IVPlanning for manufacture

PHASE V Planning for distribution

PHASE VIPlanning for use

PHASE VII Planning for product

retirement

16
 7 Phases of design
1 Phase I Feasibility
Useful solutions to design problem computer aided modelling
2 Phase II Preliminary design
- Set of useful solutions
- Which of the preferred alternatives is the best
design concept
- FEM for design analysis – to find stress concentration in
critical areas
- Photo elasticity for accurate stress analysis
- Socio economic conditions
- Consumer tastes
- Competitors offerings
- availability of critical raw materials
- Rate of obsolescence
- Validation of design 17
 Phase III
3 Detailed design
Final decision for a particular product to be made with regard
to “design concept”
- Specification of components based on master layout
- Provisional synthesis paper design ; experimental design
- models construction
- components , prototype and testing
- redesign and refinement until an engineering description of
a proven design accomplished

18
 Phase IV
4 Planning Production process
1) Process planning for every part , sub assembly , final assembly
process sheet : sequential list of operations ;
Raw materials , tools , machines , special instructions
Discussions with product designers , tool designers ,
metallurgists
2) Design of tools and fixtures
3) Planning – new production facilities required
4) Quality control system
5) Production personnel – job specifications
6) Production control work schedule , Inventory control ,
Labour cost , materials , service , Integrating with accounts
7) Information flow :
Forms , Records → Integration with computers
8) Financial planning : Source , rate of recovering the capital 19
 Phase V

5 Planning for distribution

- Production and consumption cycle

- Distribution
(i) Packaging
(ii) Ware housing
(iii) Sales promotion
(iv) Distribution

20
 Phase VI

6 Planning for consumption

(i) Design for maintenance
(ii) Design for reliability
(iii) Design for safety
(iv) Design for convenience in use
(v) Design for aesthetic features
(vi) Design for operational economy
(vii) Design for adequate duration of services
(viii) Product improvement , next generation designs ,
related products

21
 Phase VII

7 Planning for retirement

Disposal
1) Rate of obsolescence
2) Physical life to match anticipated service life
3) Several levels of use
4) Reuse of materials
5) Examining and testing of service terminated
products in lab

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 25 steps – phases of design

( I ) Feasibility study

1. Need analysis
2. Identification and formulation
3. Synthesis of possible solutions
4. Physical realizability
5. Economic analysis
6. Financial viability

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 25 steps – phases of design
( II ) Preliminary design
1) Design concept
2) Mathematical model
3) Sensitivity analysis
4) Compatibility analysis
5) Stability analysis
6) Formal optimization
7) Projections for future
8) Prediction of system behavior
9) Testing design concept
10) simplification of design
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 25 steps – phases of design

( III ) Detailed design

1. Preparation for design

2. Design for subsystems
3. Design for components
4. Design for parts
5. Assembly drawings
6. Experimental construction
7. Product test programme
8. Analysis and prediction
9. Redesign

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Design rules for manufacturability

Information on
(1) Product life, volume
(2) Permissible tooling expenditure levels
(3) Possible part shape categories and complexity levels
(4) Service or environment requirements
(5) Appearance factors
(6) Accuracy factors

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 SELECTION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

COMPATIBILITY BETWEEN PROCESSES AND MATERIALS

SANDCASTING CI , STEELS , AL , CU , NI

SOLIDIFICATION INVESTMENT STEELS , Al , Cu , Ni

PROCESSES CASTING

DIE CASTING Al , Zn , Mg

Material Cost to
& Make a
Manufacturing Quality
process product
27
 SELECTION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

COMPATIBILITY BETWEEN PROCESSES AND MATERIALS

Material composition ; grade

Cost of material
Form ( bar , tube , wire , strip plate ,
plate , powders etc
Size (dimension , tolerance )
Material Heat treated condition
selection
Anisotrophy ( directional properties )
Quality level
Ease of manufacture
(workability , weldability , machinability)
Ease of recycling

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 Unit cost of manufacture
Life cycle cost per unit
Qty of parts
Complexity of part
Quality (Defect free)
Manufacturing Surface finish
process Accuracy
Availability of equipment
Tooling (lead time)
Make – buy decision

SELECTION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

COMPATIBILITY BETWEEN PROCESSES AND MATERIALS

29
 SELECTION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
COMPATIBILITY BETWEEN PROCESSES AND MATERIALS

Minimize number of parts

Standardize
Use common parts across product line

Multifunctional
DFM guidelines Ease of manufacture
Avoid two tight tolerances
Avoid secondary mfg and finishing operations
Utilize special characteristics
of a process
Designs functional and simple

30
 Spacing of holes
Avoid generalized remarks
Dimensioning

Minimum weight
Specific
Design rules or General purpose tooling
Guide lines Minimize stress concentration
Max operations in one position

SELECTION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

COMPATIBILITY BETWEEN PROCESSES AND MATERIALS

31
 General
1. Minimum parts
2. Assly of 20-30%
DFA
guidelines 3. Minimize assembly surfaces
4. Use sub assemblies
Handling
1. Min fastener cost
2. Min handling in assembly

Insertion

1. Assembly direction
2. Unobstructed access
3. Compliance to assembly

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 Benefits of standardization

Qty discounts , flexible delivery

Minimum work

Raw material standardization

1. Single bar size , tube , sheet metal

2. Metal casting , plastic single material
Cost reduction
3. Automation

Feature standardization
1. Drilling , reaming , radii
(reduction of Inventory of tools)
2. Floor space
3. Overhead costs control

33
 Benefits of standardization

Product quality

Quality Prequalification of parts

improvement (reducing testing charges)
Minimum vendors
(stronger supplier
Relationship)

34
 Benefits of standardization

Material logistics
(fewer parts advantageous

Production Reliable deivery

flexibility (reduction of overhead costs)

Flexible manufacturing
(Batch sizes , finished
goods inventory)

35
 Benefits of standardization

Parts availability

Manufacturing Quick supplies

responsiveness

Financially stronger
suppliers

36
 Common
Group Technology
Characteristics
(GT)

Design characteristics of part Manufacturing characteristics of part

1. External shape 1. External shape
2. Internal shape 2. Major dimension
3. Major dimension 3. Length / dia ratio
4. Length / dia ratio 4. Primary process used
5. Shape of raw matl 5. Secondary processes
6. Part function 6. Annual production
7. Type of material 7. Tooling and fixtures
8. Tolerances 8. Sequence of operation
9. Surface finish 9. Tolerances
10. Heat treatment 10. Surface finish

37
 Benefits of GT

1. Standardization of part design and elimination of duplication

2. Savings in cost and time
3. Less experienced engineers can work accessing previous designs , process plans
4. Set up times reduced , sharing of tools and fixtures
5. Cost estimates based on past experience
6. Manufacturing cell layout
7. Functional layout

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 Classification of parts

1. Experience based judgment (part shape and sequence of operation)

2. Production flow analysis (PFA) (parts –identical operations-family)
3. Classification and cooling (external shape features , internal features ,
flat surfaces , holes , gear teeth , materials , surface properties , manufacturing)
4. Engineering data base

39
 Mistake proofing
(error proofing)

Zero defect concept

Common mistakes

1. Setting up work pieces and tools

2. Incorrect or missing parts in assemblies
3. Processing wrong work piece
4. Improve operations or adjustments of machines

Mistakes also in design and purchase

40
 Inspection six sigma → 3.43 PPM

Frequent mistakes
Design

(1) Ambiguous information on drawings or specifications

(2) Mistakes in conversion units , wrong calculations
(3) Poor design concept
(4) Defective material
(5) Not all performance requirements considered
(6) Not upto quality standards
(7) Internal porosity or fine surface cracks

41
 Assembly
(1)Omitted operations
(2)Omitted part
(3)Wrong orientation of part
(4)Misaligned part
(5)Wrong location of part
(6)Selection of wrong part
(7)Misadjustments
(8)Commit a prohibited action
(9)Added material or part
(10)Misread , mis measure , misinterpret
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 Mistake proofing solutions

1) Control of variability
2) Control of complexity
3) Control of mistakes

Devices

1) Check list
2) Guide pins , guide ways , and slots
3) Specialized fixtures and jigs
4) Limit switches – sensors
5) Counters – operations , time

43
Barriers to creative thinking “mental blocks”

Perpetual blocks
1. Stereotyping
2. Information overload
3. Limiting the problem unnecessarily
4. Fixtation
5. Priming or provision of cues

Environmental blocks
1) Fear of risk taking
2) Unease with chaos
3) Unable or unwilling to incubate new ideas

44
Creative thinking methods

1) Brain storming
2) Technological stretching

a) What happens if we push the conditions to the limit

b) Temperature up or down
c) Pressure up or down
d) Impurities up or down

Six key questions

1) Who ( uses , wants , benefit )
2) What
3) When
4) Where
5) Why
6) How
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 Creative methods for design

1) Checking concept ideas for feasibility

2) Systematic methods for designing
a) Functional decomposition and synthesis (logical)
b) Morphological analysis (alternatives)
c) Creative problem solving
d) Axiomatic design
e) Design optimization
f) Decision based design

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 UNIT II
MACHINING PROCESS

OVERVIEW OF VARIOUS MACHINING PROCESSES

“REMOVAL OF MATERIAL TO GIVE REQUIRED SHAPE”

1. CUTTING MOTION – RELATIVE MOTION BETWEEN WORK PIECE AND TOO

2. FEEDING MOTION – FRESH SURFACE FOR CUTTING TO THE TOOL

GENERATRIX → CUTTING

DIRECTRIX → FEED

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SHAPING AND PLANNING , BROACHING

TURNING

DRILLING

MILLING

GRINDING

LAPPING

HONING

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 SUPER FINISHING
ABRASIVE JET MACHINING

ULTRASONIC MACHINING

ELECTRO CHEMICAL MACHINING

ELECTRO DISCHARGE MACHINING

EECTRON BEAM MACHINING

LAZER BEAM MACHINING

49
 MACHINABILITY – EASE OF MATERIAL REMOVAL

FACTORS :
1) WORK PIECE MATERIAL
2) TOOL MATERIAL AND GEOMETRY
3) TYPE OF MACHINING
4) OPERATING CONDITIONS

DFM GUIDE LINES FOR MACHINING

1) MINIMIZE AREA OF MACHINING

2) SEQUENCE OF MACHINING (SOFTWARE)
3) UTILIZE STANDARD COMPONENTS AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE
4) PRESHAPE THE WORKPIECE – USE CASTING , FORGING , WELDING ETC
5) USE STANDARD PRESHAPED WORKPIECEES
6) EMPLOY STANDARD MACHINED FEATURES RAW MATERIALS
1) CHOOSING TO REDUCE COST
2) USE RAW MATERIAL IN STANDARD FORMS COMPONENT DESIGN

50
 GENERAL
1. DESIGN COMPONENT SO THAT IT CAN BE MACHINED ON ONE MACHINE
TOOL
2. DESIGN COMPONENT SO THAT MACHINING IS NOT REQUIRED ON
UNEXPOSED
SURFACES OF THE WORK PIECES WHEN THE COMPONENT IS GRIPPED IN
THE
WORK HOLDING DEVICE
3. AVOID MACHINED FEATURES WHICH THE COMPANY CANNOT HANDLE
4. DESIGN COMPONENT IS RIGID WHEN GRIPPED IN WORK HOLDING DEVICE
5. VERIFY THAT WHEN FEATURES ARE TO BE MACHINED , THE TOOL , TOOL
HOLDER ,
WORK AND WORK HOLDING DEVICE , WILL NOT INTERFACE WITH EACH
OTHER
6. ENSURE THAT AUXILIARY HOLES OR MAIN BORES ARE CYLINDRICAL AND
HAVE L/D RATIOS THAT MAKE IT POSSIBLE TO MACHINE THEM WITH
STANDARD
BENT HOLES

51
 ROTATIONAL COMPONENTS
1) CYLINDRICAL SURFACES CONCENTRIC , PLANE
SURFACES
NORMAL TO THE COMPONENTS AXIS
2) DIAMETER OF EXTERNAL FEATURES INCREASE
FROM
THE EXPOSED FACE OF THE WORK PIECE
3) DIAMETER OF INTERNAL FEATURES DECREASE
FROM
THE EXPOSED FACE OF THE WORK PIECE
4) INTERNAL CORNERS – RADII EQUAL TO THE RADIUS
OF
THE STANDARD ROUNDED TOOL CORNER
5) AVOID INTERNAL FEATURES FOR LONG
COMPONENTS
6) AVOID COMPONENTS WITH VERY LARGE OR VERY
SMALL L/D RATIOS
52
 NON – ROTATIONAL COMPONENTS

1. PROVIDE A BASE FOR WORK HOLDING AND REFERENCE

2. EXPOSED SURFACES CONSIST OF A SERIES OF MUTUALLY ┘r PLANE
SURFACES ││lel to and normal to base
3. ENSURE THAT INTERNAL CORNERS NORMAL TO THE BASE HAVE A
RADIUS EQUAL TO A STANDARD TOOL RADIUS
ENSURE THAT FOR MACHINED POCKETS , THE INTERNAL CORNERS
NORMAL TO THE BASE HAVE AS LARGE A RADIUS AS POSSIBLE
4. RESTRICT PLANE–SURFACE MACHINING (SLOTS , GROOVES ETC)
TO ONE SURFACE OF THE COMPONENT
5. AVOID CYLINDRICAL BORES IN LONG COMPONENTS
6. AVOID MACHINED SURFACES ON LONG COMPONENTS BY USING
WORK MATERIAL PERFORMED TO THE CROSS SECTION REQUIRED
7. AVOID EXTREMELY LONG OR EXTREMELY THIN COMPONENTS
8. ENSURE THAT IN FLAT OR CUBIC COMPONENTS , MAIN BORES
ARE NORMAL TO THE BASE AND CONSIST OF CYLINDRICAL
SURFACES DECREASING IN DIAMETER FROM THE EXPOSED FACE
OF THE WORK PIECE
9. AVOID BLIND BORES IN LARGE CUBIC COMPONENTS
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 ASSEMBLY

1) ENSURE THAT ASSEMBLY IS POSSIBLE

2) ENSURE THAT EACH OPERATING MACHINED SURFACE ON A
COMPONENT HAS A CORRESPONDING MACHINED SURFACE
ON MATING COMPONENT
3) ENSURE THAT INTERNAL CORNERS DO NOT INTERFACE WITH
A CORRESPONDING EXTERNAL

ACCURACY AND SURFACE FINISH

1) SPECIFY WIDEST TOLERANCES AND ROUGHEST SURFACE THAT

WILL GIVE THE REQUIRED PERFORMANCE FOR OPERATING
SURFACES
2) ENSURE THAT SURFACES TO BE FINISH GROUND ARE RAISED
AND NEVER INTERSECT TO FORM INTERNAL CORNERS

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 DIMENSION TOLERANCES AND SURFACE FINISH

FUNCTION INTENDED FOR MACHINED SURFACE

MANUFACTURING COST INCREASES UNNECESSARILY IF TOO CLOSE

TOLERANCES
OR TOO SMOOTH FINISH IS GIVEN CRITERIA SHOULD BE ACCEPTABLE
PERFORMANCE

GUIDELINES

1. TOLERANCES 0.127 TO 0.25 MM CAN BE READILY OBTAINED

2. TOLERANCES 0.025 TO 0.05 MM ARE SLIGHTLY MORE DIFFICULT TO
OBTAIN
AND CAN INCREASE PRODUCTION COST
3. TOLERANCES 0.0127 MM OR SMALLER REQUIRE GOOD EQUIPMENT
AND
SKILLED OPERATORS AND ADD SIGNIFICANTLY TO PRODUCTION
COSTS

SURFACE FINISH : 1µm ARITHMATICAL MEAN AND BETTER WILL

REQUIRE SEPARATE 55
EG: TURNING OPERATION

Ra = 0.0321 f2/rԑ

Where Ra = Arithmetical mean surface roughness

f → feed
rε → tool corner radius

Machining time
tm = lw / fnw

lw → length of work piece

nw → rotational speed of work piece

Process Surface roughness (Typical) µm

SAW 25-6.3
TURN ,MILL,BORE 6.3-3.2
DRILL 5.3-2.4
REAM 4.0-2.0
GRIND 2.4-0.5
HONING 0.5-0.18
LAP,POLISH 0.3-0.025
56
Tm = 0.18 lw / [ nw (Ra.rԑ) 0.5 ]

Machining time inversely proportional to surface finish

Machining cost increases with lesser surface roughness

Designing for machining ease

Machinability

1) Hardness → steels below 300 HB are easy to machine

2) Microstructure → High carbon steels → Tool wear
Cast Iron → good finish(due to free graphite)
3) Free cutting properties
MnS inclusious in steel → free machining
Pb in brass → free machining
4) Ductility → Discontinuous or powdery
Chip show high machinability
Continuous chips – harm to operator

Machinability index or rating Metal removed rate ratio

57
 Factors for machining ease

1. Reduce amount of machining (Tolerances for mating suspects)

2. Convenient and reliable locating surfaces to setup work piece
3. Sufficient rigidity of work piece
4. Provision for advancing of cutting tool
5. Clearance recesses
6. Several work piece can be set up to be machined simultaneously
7. External surfaces of revolution upset heads , flanges , and shoulders
should be extensively applied to reduce machining and to save metal
8. Retaining centre holes on the finished components
9. Elements of shank design should be unified
10. Spherical convex surfaced

58
11.
a) Through holes are to be used whereever possible
b) Holes should not be located closer to a certain minimum distance from an
adjacent wall of the part
c) Centre distances of holes to be specified considering the possibility of
using multi spindle drilling heads
d) Holes to be drilled should have their top and bottom surface square to the
hole axis to prevent drill breakage
e) Several holes along same axis
f) In drilling holes at the bottom of a slot , their dia should be less by
0.5-1 mm than slot width
g) In stepped holes , maximum accuracy should be specified for the through step
h) Concave spherical surfaces should have through hole or blind hole
i) Avoid recesses
59
12) Threads
a) Entering chamfer on threaded holes
b) No. of incomplete threads in a blind hole with no recess should be equal to three
for Grey Iron Casting and five for steel parts
c) A neck at the end of a thread is not required for milled threads
d) Preferred thread standards should pertain
e) Flat surfaces
a) Uniform and impact less chip removal
b) Size of machined flat surface should ensure using of standard milling cutters
Goals of design for Machining
1. Reduce machining time
2. Reduce material costs
3. Reduce tooling costs
4. Reduce setup cost

60
 Examples of Design for machining

Bad design Better design

2 different techniques Profiles similar
required
Poor design
Better design

Sharp inside
Corners difficult to
61
machine
 Chucking surface

Poor no place for clamping Better design Area for clamping

Restricted surface

62
Poor design no access Good design
 Simplifying drilling

Poor Good

63
 Advantage of uniform pad height

poor Good

35o 35o 35o

45o

poor Good

Minimizing tooling

64
 UNIT III

METAL CASTING

APRAISAL OF VARIOUS CASTING PROCESSES

MINIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN RAW MATERIAL AND PRODUCT

POURING MOLTEN METAL INTO MOULD CAVITY AND AFTER SOLIDIFICAT

THE METAL ASSUMES SHAPE O MOULD CAVITY PRODUCT IS CALLED CAS

1) SAND CASTING
2) SHELL MOULDING
3) CERAMIC SHELL CASTING
4) INVESTMENT CASTING
5) CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
6) PERMANENT MOULD CASTING
7) GRAVITY DIE CASTING
8) LOW PRESSURE DIE CASTING
9) HOT CHAMBER DIE CASTING
10) COLD CHAMBER DIE CASTING
65
 SELECTION OF CASTING PROCESS

SECTION FINISH
PROCESS MATERIALS WEIGHT
THICKNESS Ra

1. Sand mould Fe,Low mp steels Min: Min: 75-100g 5-25 µm

Cu , Al , Mg and Al 4.8 mm Max 2300
alloys Mg 4.0 mm to 2700 kg
Cu 2.4 mm
Steels 6-12 mm
Max : 1.2 meter

2. Shell mould Fe, Al and Min : CI 3.18 mm Min 75-100 g

Cu alloys Steel , Al , Mg Max : 13 kg 2-5 µm
4.7 mm usual : (ferrous)
Max: 6.35 mm 45-90 kg 150-250 µm

3. Investment Hig mp steel Min : 0.25–1.27 mm Min:28.3kg

(NF)
Moulds alloys , Al , Ni Max : 25-76 mm Max: 2.3-2.7 kg 1.5-2.0 µm

66
 SELECTION OF CASTING PROCESS

SECTION FINISH
PROCESS MATERIALS WEIGHT
THICKNESS Ra

5. Die castings Non-ferrous Min:Cu 1.2-2 mm Min:28 g 1-2 µm

Zn , Mg , Ni Al. 0.7-2 mm Max : 45 Kg Mg
Cu , alloys Zn 0.4–1.27 mm 18 Kg Zn
Steel under 45 Kg Al
Special condition

6. Plaster mould Non-ferrous Min 0.51 mm Min 28 g 30-50 µ inch

casting metals , Al for CSA less Max : 11 kg

7. Centrifugal Al metals Min 1.5 – 6.35 mm Min:1.35 kg 5-25 µm

casting Max:101.6 mm Centrifugi 100 g
Max : 10 tons

8. Slush only Min:1.58 mm Min:28.3 g 1-2 µm

mould non-ferrous Max:3.18 mm Max:2.3 to 4.5 kg
metals

67
 DESIGN Considerations for Casting
1. Pattern allowances : Free withdrawal of pattern : Draft on the vertical faces
of casting based on surface height. For internal surfaces , draft values should be
higher than those for external ones. Loose parts and complex parting lines
should be avoided , if possible , if possible on the patterns.

2. Avoiding large horizontal surfaces on the top of mould , since gas evolved by
the metal and in the mould may be trapped on the surfaces causing cavities and
pinholes.

3. Avoiding abrupt changes in the path of molten metal

4. Equal rate of cooling in all section of castings and allow unrestricted

shrinkage

5. Form of casting should be such that all feeding heads , risers , runners ,
sprues and gates can be easily cut off , all cores knocked out and core irons
removed.
68
 DESIGN Considerations for Casting
6. One datum surface along each of the three space coordinates

7. The size and weight of casting , type of alloy employed , and the casting method
should be considered for designing wall thickness

8. Rib design depends on the overall dimensions of the casting and their size is in
definite relation to wall thickness

9. Corner radii at junctions may range from 2 mm to 120 mm depending on overall

dimensions and the angle between them

10. Rate of cooling for outside corners is always higher than that of inside corners

d
h

H
(0.75-0.8)
D
69
 DESIGN Considerations for Casting
H≤D H ≤0.5D
M/C moulding H ≤0.15d

Unify cores when large number of core cavities are present in the casting

11. Bosses are provided at places where holes are to be drilled

70
 Design principles for die casting
1. Die casting should be thin walled structures
Zn →1 to 1.5 mm
Al,Mg → 30-50% thicker
Cu → 2 to 3 mm thick
Fine grain structure with minimum amount of porosity and good mechanical
properties.
Large die castings are designed with 5 mm thick walls and sections with 10 mm
thick

2. As a general rule thickness of projections where they meet main wall should not
exceed 80% of the main wall thickness

3. Features projecting from the side walls of casting should not , if possible lie behind
one another when viewed in the direction of the die opening

4. Internal wall depressions or internal undercuts should be avoided in casting design

; since moving internal core mechanisms are virtually impossible to operate with
die casting
71
 SUMMARY OF DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

(I) Mould heat transfer characteristics

(II) Metals thermal conductivity

(III) Metals freezing range / crystallization

(IV) Hot spots / location of risers ; hot tearing

(V)Control of directional solidification

72
 Design consideration

(i) Maintain uniform section thickness

(ii) Ribs and webs may be staggered to eliminate hot spots
(iii)At points of metal concentration cored holes may be
provided
(iv)Design to promote directional solidification
(v) Avoid thin sections between heavy sections and risers
(vi)Prevent occurrence of isolated hot spots difficult to feed
(vii)Keep plates in tension and ribs in compression according
to performance requirement
(viii)Minimum section thickness is determined by the
flowability of metal being cost
73
 Casting tolerances
Factors:

1) Casting design
2) Material being cast
3) Condition of pattern and material
4) Mould material
5) Assembly of mould boxes
6) Mould swelling
7) Felting
8) Heat treatment

74
 TOLERANCES FOR SAND CASTINGS
mm (upto 300 mm thick

Steel castings 1.5

Cast Irons 1.2
Alluminium alloys 0.8
Copper alloys 2.4

Tolerances expected on shell moulds and

Sand moulds for Grey Iron and steel castings

Basic size Tolerance in mm Machine Shell

sand moulds moulds moulding
hand moulding Metal / Epoxy

0-25 mm 2-2.5 1.2-2.0 0.8-1

26-50 mm 2.5-3.5 2-2.5 1-1.2
51-100 3.5-4.5 2.5-3.5 1.2-1.5
200 mm 4.5-6.0 3.5-4.5 1.5-1.8
400 mm 6-8 4.5-6.0 1.8-2.4
800 mm 8-11 6-7.5 2.4-3.2
75
 SOLIDIFICATION

Directional solidification :

Factors :

1. High thermal conductivity and high heat capacity mould material High degree of
progressive solidification

2. Short liquidous to solidous range solidifying metals – high degree

3. Low thermal conductivity of solidifying metal high degree

4. High solidification temperature – steep thermal gradient – high degree

76
 Measures :

1. Proper gating and risering

2. Control of pouring rate and temperature
3. Differential heating using exothermic riser
4. Differential cooling using chills
5. Use of padding
6. Use of mould materials with different thermal conductivities
for different mould parts

77
 Requirements for sound casting

1. Progressive solidification
2. Directional solidification Proceed from most
distant points towards the riser
3. temperature gradient to be steep enough to
keep the angle α large to eliminate shrinkage void
4. If progressive solidification is not proper all the
points from outer to inner of the casting do not
reach centre line at the same time , causing
centre line shrinkage / micro shrinkage /
shrinkage porosity

78
 Simulation of solidification

Complete and physically accurate simulation of metal casting process

is difficult programs

AUTO CAST BOMBAY

CAP/WRAFTS USA
CAST FLOW FINLAND
JS CAST AUSTRALIA
MAGM SOFT JAPAN
MAVIS GERMANY
MAVIS UK

Casting simulation is a powerful tool to visualize mould filling ,

solidification and cooling , predicting defect location.

Trouble shooting existing castings and developing new castings

79
INPUT DATA

1) 3D CAD MODEL OF CASTING

2) MATERIAL
3) GEOMETRY
4) PROCESS

GEOMETRY
(I) PART FEACTURES
CONVEX AND CONCAVE REGIONS
CORED HOLES
POCKETS
BOSSES
RIBS
VARIOUS JUNCTIONS (2D AND 3D)

80
THESE AFFECT SOLIDIFICATION OF METAL

(II) LAYOUT IN MOULD

NO. OF CAVITIES , LOCATIONS (INTER CAVITY GAP AND CAVITY TO WALL
GAP)
(III)FEED AIDS
INCLUDING NUMBER , SHAPE , SIZE , LOCATION OF INSULATING SLEEVES
AND COVERS , CHILLS (EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL ) AND PADDING

THESE INFLUENCE RATE OF HEAT TRANSFER MATERIAL

(I) THERMO-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL ; DENSITY , SPECIFIC HEAT ,

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY , LATENT HEAT , VOLUMETRIC CONTRACTION
DURING
SOLIDIFICATION , COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION
VISCOSITY AND SURFACE TENSION
THERMO PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MOULD :
CORE , AND FEED AID MATERIALS , INCLUDING DENSITY , SPECIFIC HEAT ,
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY , COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION AND
MODULOUS EXTENSION FACTOR
(II) CHANGES IN PROPERTIES WITH COMPOSITION AND TEMPERATURE ,
RELEVANT TRANSFORMATIONS (GRAIN SHAPE , STRUCTURE ,
81
DISTRIBUTION ) AND RESULTANT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
 PROCESS :

(1) FLOW PATTERN OF MOLTEN METAL :

(2) SOLIDIFICATION (HEAT TRANSFER)
(3) SOLID STATE COOLING
(4) PROCESS PARAMETERS
( COMPOSITION OF METAL , MOULD SIZE , MOULD
COMPACTION , MOULD COATING , MOULD TEMPERATURE ,
POURING TEMPERATURE AND RATE , MOULD COOLING ,
SHAKE OUT ETC.

82
 OUTPUT OF SIMULATION PROGRAMME

(1) ANIMATED VISUALIZATION OF MOULD FILLING

CASTING SOLIDIFICATION
COOLING TO ROOM TEMPERATURE
MOULDING FILLING SIMULATION
PREDICTING ; TOTAL FILLING TIME ,
MOULD EROSION , INCOMPLETE FILLING
AIR ENTRAPMENT
BLOW HOLES CAUSED BY ENTRAPMENT OF GASES OWING TO POOR
VENTING , - DIFFICULT TO PREDICT
CASTING SIMULATION
SHOWS THE TEMPERATURES , GRADIENTS , COOLING RATES –
PREDICTION OF SHRINKAGE , MICROSTRUCTURE , MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES , RESIDUAL STRESSES , DISTORTION

SIMULATION CANNOT IMPROVE METHOD BY ITSELF

MAIN APPLICATIONS
(1) CASTING TROUBLE SHOOTING
(2) METHOD OPTIMIZATION
83
 SHOPFLOOR VIRTUAL CASTING

2D METHOD DESIGN 3D PART MODELLING

PATTERN MODIFICATION 3D METHOD DESIGN

CORE AND MOULD MAKING CASTING SIMULATION

MELTING AND POURING

OK
No
CUTTING AND INSPECTION
No YES
OK

YES

84
Part design → “decides fate”
Modelling helps in improving manufacturability without affecting functionability

BENEFITS OF CASTING SIMULATION

1) CUSTOMER SATISFACTION
2) FASTER DEVELOPMENT
3) LOWER REJECTION
4) HIGHER YIELD
5) COST REDUCTION

BOTTLENECKS
1) TRAINED MANPOWER REQUIRED
2) TECHNICAL SUPPORT
3) MAINTENANCE
4) INITIAL COST

MAJOR ADVANTAGES :
1) REDUCED SHOP FLOOR TRIALS
2) VALUE ADDITION
3) KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
INDIA : ONLY 5% USE SIMULATION WHERE AS GERMANY 90% USA 75%
HYDERABAD : SNIT (IIF R&D CENTRE)
85
 GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR SAND CASTING (CH12 P538
BOOTHROYD)
1) COMPUTER – BASED SOLIDIFICATION MODELLING
2) SHAPE OF THE CASTING SHOULD ALLOW FOR ORDERLY
SOLIDIFICATION
3) DIFFERENCE IN THICKNESSES OF ADJOINING SECTIONS SHOULD NOT
EXCEED 2 TO 1%
4) WEDGE – SHAPED CHANGES IN WALL THICKNESS SHOULD NOT
EXCEED TAPER 1 TO 4
5) THICKNESS OF BOSS OR PAD
6) RADIUS FOR GOOD SHRINKAGE CONTROL SHOULD BE FROM 1 ½ to
1/3 OF THE SECTION THICKNESS
7) TWO RIBS SHOULD NOT CAUSE EACH OTHER
8) A DRAFT OR TAPER OF FROM 6 TO 3 DEGREES IS REQUIRED ON
VERTICAL FACES SO THAT PATTERN CAN BE REMOVED FROM
MOULD
86
1. AVOID SHARP ANGLES AND MULTIPLE-SECTION JOINTS
2. DESIGN SECTIONS OF UNIFORM THICKNESS
3. PROPORTION INNER WALL THICKNESS
4. CONSIDER METAL SHRINKAGE IN DESIGN
5. USE A SIMPLE PARTING LINE
6. DEFINE APPROPRIATE MACHINING ALLOWANCE
7. USE ECONOMICAL TOLERANCES

DESIGN FOR DIE CASTING , INVESTMENT CASTING NEED TO

BE UNDERSTOOD WITH REGARD TO FACTORS SPECIFIC TO
THESE PROCESSES

87
 UNIT IV

Forging : Design factors for forging

Forging : “Pastically deformed solid”

Design guidelines for closed – die forging

1. Vertical surfaces of a forging must be tapered to permit removal of the forging from
die cavity external (5 to 7 oC) internal (7 to 10oC)
2. The maximum flash thickness should not be greater than ¼ in or less than 1/32 in on
average
3. Webs are the sections of a forging normal to the motion of the moving die and ribs
are the relatively thin sections parallel to die motion. These features are easiest to
form by the deforming metal when ribs are not too high and narrow and the web is
relatively thick and uniform
4. The parting line , where the die halves meet , is an important design consideration
because its location helps to influence grain flow , die costs , and die wear. For
optimum economy it should be kept to a single plane if at all possible , since that will
make die sinking , forging and trimming less costly.

88
5. Wherever possible in the design of forgings , as in the design of castings , it is
desirable to keep the thickness of adjacent sections as uniform as possible. Rapid
changes in section thickness should be avoided. To avoid defects like laps , cracks
generous radii must be provided.
6. Most forging is done at elevated temperature where the flow stress of material is much
lower than at room temperature. In order to account for oxidation , correcting for
warpage and mismatch , and for dimensional mistakes due to thermal contraction or
die wear , machining allowance has to be given.

Design guidelines for forging

“Net shape technology” Bulk deformation processes press is used for causing
extensive bulk plastic deformation
Extrusion → high L/d ratio
Drawing →
Rolling →
Generally hot working carried out Extensive plastic deformation causes metallurgical
changes porosity closed up , grain structure and second phases are deformed and
elongated in the principal directions of working , creating a fiber structure”. Properties
are not same on all directions of maximum plastic deformation(longitudinal) should
be aligned with the direction of the part that needs to carry the maximum stress. Open
die forging use flat dies for simple shapes. 89
Forging design guidelines
1. For flat die forging , intersections of two or more cylindrical elements should be
avoided

Undesirable

Undesirable

90
 Desirable for flat die forging Desirable for flat die forging
Ribbed cross sections should be avoided

Bosses , projections , pads etc should be avoided on the main surfaces of forging projects
inside the prongs of fork type parts to be avoided.

2. Replace components having complex shape by units consisting of simple welded or

assembled elements
91
DESIGNING FORGINGS FOR HORIZONTAL FORGING MACHINES

1. THE WALL THICKNESS OF FORGING WITH DEEP , THROUGH OR BLIND

HOLES SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 0.15 OF THE OUTSIDE
DIAMETER
2. REDUCTIONS IN CROSS-SECTION ALONG THE LENGTH OF FORGING
SHOULD BE AVOIDED BECAUSE THEY IMPEDE METAL FLOW DURING
FORGING PROCESS
3. SHANKS OF TAPER FORM ARE ALSO DIFFICULT TO FORGE AND THEY
SHOULD BE REPLACED BY CYLINDRICAL SHANKS
4. VOLUME OF THE LOCATED AT THE ENDS OR IN THE MIDDLE OF A
FORGING MUST NOT EXCEED THE VOLUME OF A BAR HAVING THE GIVEN
DIAMETER „D‟ AND LENGTH OF 10-12 d

92
5. DRAFT FOR THIS TYPE OF FORGING MAY BE VERY SMALL AND DRAFT OF
0.5O IS SUITABLE FOR THE CYLINDRICAL SECTION OF THE FORGING UP-
SET WITHIN PUNCH CAVITY AND OF A LENGTH MORE THAN 1 ½ OF THE
DIAMETER. A DRAFT OF 0.5-1.5O IS SUITABLE FOR SHOULDERS FORMED IN
THE CIRCULAR IMPRESSIONS OF DIES AND 0.5-3O ON THE WALL OF BLIND
HOLES WITH A LENGTH OF 5 OR MORE DIAMETERS
6. TRANSITION FROM ONE SURFACE TO ANOTHER MUST HAVE FILLETS WITH
RADII FROM 1.5-2 mm.
7. CARBON AND ALLOY STEEL FASTENERS AND SIMILAR PARTS HAVING AN
ANNEALED HARDNESS 120-207 BHN ARE PRODUCED BY COLD HEADING

IN COLD HEADING , THE HEAD SHOULD BE SIMPLE FORM WITH A

MINIMUM VOLUME AN DIAMETER. CLOSE TOLERANCE SHOULD NOT BE
SPECIFIED FOR THE HEADED PARTS AS DIE LIFE WILL BE REDUCED.
FILLETRADII 0.2 mm TO BE PROVIDED AT ALL CORNERS

93
 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR EXTRUDED SECTIONS

1) AREAS OF BILLET AND EXTRUSION ; OR CORRESPONDING DIAMETERS TO BE

CONSIDERED ( AO , A1 , dO , d1 )
2) ENGINEERING STRAIN TO BE ACCOUNTED ( AO - A1 ) / AO
3) STRAIN RATE EFFECT TO BE CONSIDERED
4) HOT EXTRUSION TEMPERATURE AND ITS EFFECT ON OXIDATION ; FLOW OF MATERIAL
, SURFACE FINISH
5) SELECTION OF TYPE OF EXTRUSION – COLD , HOT , IMPACT , HYDROSTATIC
6) SELECTION OF EXTRUSION PROCESS BASED ON MATERIAL
EG :
1) IMPACT EXTRUSION FOR SOFT METALS
2) HOT EXTRUSION FOR STEELS
3) COLD EXTRUSION FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS
4) CLADDED EXTRUSION FOR ZIRCONIUM ALLOYS

94
 EXTRUSION DESIGN TIPS

1. WALL THICKNESS :
BASED ON STRENGTH AND COST PROFILES WITH UNIFORM WALL THICKNESS ARE THE
SIMPLEST TO PRODUCE
WALL THICKNESS WITHIN A PROFILE CAN BE VARIED
2. RADI USED CORNERS , SOFT LINES
3. BE SYMMETRICAL
4. HAVE A SMALL CIRCUMSCRIBING CIRCLE
5. NOT HAVE , DEEP , NARROW CHANNELS
6. SOLID PROFILES IF POSSIBLE
7. FEWER CAVITIES IN HOLLOW PROFILES
8. PROFILES – WIDTH TO HEIGHT RATIO 1:3
9. DECORATION
10. SYMMETRICAL SHAPE
11. NARROW SHAPES WITH DEEP GAPS CAN CAUSE PROBLEMS

95
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR SHEET METAL BENDING

1) MINIMUM INSIDE RADIUS EQUAL TO MATERIAL THICKNESS

2) BEND RADIUS 4 TO 8 TIMES MATERIAL THICKNESS TO AVOID CRACKING
3) MINIMUM FLANGE LENGTH 4 TIMES MATERIAL THICKNESS
4) BEND RELIEF → LENGTH GREATER THAN RADIUS OF BEND
THE BEND ALLOWANCE LBA , THE LENGTH OF THE NEUTRAL AXIS IN BEND
IS GIVEN BY
LBA = α (Rb + Kt)
α IS BEND ANGLE IN RADIANS ,
Rb IS THE BEND RADIUS (MEASURED TO THE INSIDE OF THE BEND)
and t is thickness of the sheet
If Rb > 2t ; K=0.5
If Rb > 2t ; K=0.5
DURING BENDING THERE IS A “SPRING BACK” , TO ACCOUNT FOR THIS ,
THE METAL MUST BE BENT TO A SMALLER ANGLE AND SHARPER RADIUS
, SO THAT WHEN THE METAL SPRINGS BACK , IT IS AT THE DESIRED
VALUES.
ANOTHER METHOD IS TO ADVANCE PUNCH MORE THAN WHAT IS
REQUIRED TO BEND RADIUS
5) BENDING ACROSS “METAL GRAIN” AVOIDS CRACKING
6) BEND RADIUS SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN SHEET THICKNESS 96
 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR BLANKING

1) SIMPLE BLANK CONTOURS TO BE USED AS DIE COST DEPENDS ON THE

LENGTH AND THE INTRICACY OF THE CONTOUR OF BLANK
2) IT MAY BE LESS EXPERIENCE TO CONTRUCT A COMPONENT FROM
SEVERAL SIMPLE PARTS THAN TO MAKE AN INTRICATE BLANKED PART
3) NOTCHING A BLANK ALONG ONE EDGE RESULTS IN AN UNBALANCED
FORCE THAT MAKES IT DIFFICULT TO CONTROL DIMENSIONS AS
ACCURATELY AS WITH BLANKING AROUND THE ENTIRE CONTOUR.
USUAL TOLERANCES ON BLANKED PARTS ARE ± 0.075 mm
4) DIAMETER OF PUNCHED HOLES SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN THE
THICKNESS OF SHEET
5) MINIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN HOLES OR BETWEEN HOLE AND THE
EDGE TO THE SHEET THICKNESS
6) IF HOLES HAVE TO BE THREADED , THE SHEET THICKNESS MUST BE AT
LEAST ONE-HALF THE THREAD DIAMETER

97
 DESIGN GUIDELENES FOR STRETICHING AND DEEP DRAWING
1) DEEP DRAWING DEFORMATION CONDITIONS ARE DIFFERENT THAN IN STRETCHING
2) SUCCESS IN DEEP DRAWING IS ENHANCED BY FACTORS THAT RESTRICT THINNING : DIE
RADIUS ABOUT 10 TIMES THE SHEET THICKNESS ; A LIBERAL PUNCH RADIUS , AND
ADEQUATE CLEARANCE BETWEEN PUNCH AND DIE
3) DEEP DRAWING IS FFACILITATED IF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC TEXTURE OF SHEET IS SUCH
THAT THE SLIP MCHANISMS FAVOR DEFORMATION IN THE WIDTH DIRECTION OVER THE
SHIP IN THE THICKNESS DIRECTION OF THE SHEET
PLASTIC STRAIN RATIO „r‟ GIVEN BY
r = strain in width direction of tension specimen
strain in thickness direction
4) KEELER – GOODWIN FORMING LIMIT DIAGRAM → A MATERIAL OF GREATER
FORMABILITY IN WHICH THE FORMING LIMIT DIAGRAM WAS AT HIGHER VALUES COULD
BE SAFE TO AVOID FAILURE
5) THE FAILURE COULD BE ELIMINATED BY CHANGING METAL FLOW BY EITHER DESIGN
CHANGES TO DIE OR TO PART SO THAT STRAIN STATE IS IN THE SAFE ZONE

98
 DESIGN RULES FOR BLANKING COMPONENTS

POFILE SHAPE SHOULD NOT CONTAIN NARROW PROJECTIONS

INTERNAL PUNCHED HOLES SHOULD BE SEPARATED FROM EACH OTHER

DIMENSION ‘a’ TO ‘d’ SHOULD BE GREATER THAN ( TWICE OF THICKNESS ) SHEET THICKNESS

IT IS GOOD PRACTICE TO HAVE RELIEF CUTOUTS DIMENSIONED AS ‘d’ AT THE ENDS OF

PROPOSED BENDS

TENSILE STRAINS FOR DIFFERENT MATERIALS MUST BE ESTIMATED AND COMPARED TO THE

PERMISSIBLE MAXIMUM VALUE

99
6) LOUVERS ARE FORMED FOR COOLING PURPOSE. THE LENGTH OF THE

FRONT EDGE OF LOUVER MUST BE GREATER THAN A CERTAIN MULTIPLE

OF LOUVER OPENING HEIGHT , DETERMINED BY THE MATERIAL DUCTILITY

, AND THE END RAMP ANGLES

7) THE TENSILE STRAIN AROUND THE TOP EDGE OF THE FORMED FLANGE IS

TO BE LESS THAN THE PERMISSIBLE MATERIAL DUCTILITY

TYPICAL VALUES OF FLANGE HEIGHT IS 2 TO 3 TIMES SHEET THICKNESS

8) RIBS ( GEOMETRY ) TO BE CHOSEN BASED ON DUCTILITY OF MATERIAL

9) PUNCHED SLOTS ADJACENT TO A BEND → CLEARANCE SHOULD

INCREASE TO 4 TIMES SHEET THICKNESS

10) DESIGN OF LAYOUT SHOULD ATTEMPT MINIMUM SCRAP LOSS

100
 UNIT V

DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR MANUAL ASSEMBLY

1) HANDLING (ACQUIRING , ORIENTING AND MOVING PARTS)

a) end to end symmetry
b) rotational symmetry
c) or maximum symmetry
d) features to prevent jamming of parts
e) avoid features that will allow tangling of parts when stored in bulk
f) avoid parts that stick together

2) INSERTION AND FASTENING

a) providing of chambers to guide insertion of two mating parts
b) standardize by using common parts
c) use pyramid assembly
d) self location feature to avoid holding down

101
 DEVELOPMENT OF SYSTEMATIC DFA METHODOLOGY

1. MINIMIZE TOTAL NUMBER OF PARTS

IDENTIFY THE PARTS AS PER FUNCTION AND ELIMINATE PARTS
NOT REQUIRED

CRITERIA :
1) RELATIVE MOTION
2) PART MADE OF A DIFFERENT MATERIAL THAN FOR ALL OTHER
PARTS
3) ESSENTIAL CONNECTION BETWEEN PARTS
4) MAINTENANCE REQUIRES DISASSEMBLY AND REPLACEMENT OF
PART
5) PARTS USED FOR FASTENING OR CONNECTING OTHER PARTS
ARE PRIME
CANDIDATES FOR ELIMINATION

DESIGN ASSEMBLY =

ɳ = 3 x “THEORITICAL MIN. PARTS

TOTAL ASSEMBLY TIME OF PARTS

102
NOTE: 3 SEC IS BASIC ASSEMBLY TIME OF ONE PART
2) MIINIMIZE THE ASSEMBLY SURFACES SIMPLIFY DESIGN SO THAT FEWER
SURFACES NEED TO BE PREPARED IN ASSEMBLY AND ALL WORK ON ONE
SURFACE IS COMPLETED BEFORE MOVING TO THE NEXT ONE

3) USE SUBASSEMBLIES:
(i) SUBASSEMBLIES CAN BE TESTED ELSE WHERE
(ii) SUBASSEMBLIES CAN BE BOUGHT

4) MISTAKE PROOF THE DESIGN AND ASSEMBLY

CRITERIA (i) CAN BE ASSEMBLED IN ONE WAY
(ii) ORIENTATION NOTCHES , ASYMMETRICAL HOLES , AND
STEPS IN ASSEMBLY FIXTURES ARE COMMON WAYS TO
MISTAKE PROOF THE ASSEMBLY PROCESS

103
 GUIDELINES FOR HANDLING

(1) AVOID SEPARATE FASTNERS

A) SNAP FITS
B) FEWER LARGE FASTENERS
C) STANDARDIZATION
D) SINGLE TYPE AND AUTO-FEED POWER SCREWD RIVERS

(2) MINIMIZE HANDLING IN ASSEMBLY

A) SYMMETRY
B) GUIDE AND LOCATE PARTS
C) IN CASE ROBOTS ARE USED , THE SURFACES TO BE FLAT AND
SMOOTH FOR
VACCUM GRIPPERS OR AN INNER HOLE FOR SPEARING OR A
CYLINDRICAL
OUTER SURFACE FOR GRIPPER PICK UP
(3) GUIDELINES FOR INSERTION
A) MINIMIZE ASSEMBLY DIRECTION
B) PROVIDE UNOBSTRUCTED ACCESS FOR PARTS AND TOOLS
C) MAXIMIZE COMPLIANCE IN ASSEMBLY
104
 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR THE MANUAL HANDLING INSERTION OF
PARTS

1. AVOID CONNECTIONS
TWO PARTS TO BE LOCATED AT THE SAME POINT
2. ACCESS FOR ASSEMBLY OPERATIONS IS NOT RESTRICTED
3. AVOID ADJUSTMENTS
INSTEAD OF MANY MATERIALS , IF THE ASSEMBLY WERE REPLACED
BY ONE PART MANUFATURED FROM THE MORE EXPENSIVE
MATERIAL , DIFFICULT AND COSTLY OEPRATIONS WOULD BE
AVOIDED
4. USE KINEMATIC DESIGN PRINICPLES 3 POINT CONSTRAINTS ARE
NEEDED TOGETHER WITH CLOSING FORCES

105
 TYPES OF MANUAL ASSEMBLY METHODS

BENCH ASSEMBLY FOR SMALLER PARTS

MULTI STATION ASSEMBLY CONVEYOR SYSTEM
MODULAR ASSEMBLY CENTER
VARIOUS STORAGE SHELVES
STORAGE RACKS
STORAGE BINS
AUXILLIARY TOOL TABLE
CUSTOM ASSEMBLLY LAYOUT
FLEXIBLE ASSEMBLY LAYOUT
MULTI STATION ASSEMBLY OF LARGE PRODUCTS
INSTALLATION AND ASSEMBLY AT SITE

106
DESIGN FOR HIGH – SPEED AUTOMATIC ASSEMBLY AND ROBOT
ASSEMBLY

GENERAL RULES FOR PRODUCT DESIGN FOR AUTOMATION

1. REDUCING NUMBER OF PARTS

2. REDESIGN OF PART FOR EASE OF ASSEMBLY
3. LAYERED ASSEMBLY (ONE OVER OTHER)
4. AVOID DESIGNING O PARTS THAT WILL TANGLE , NEST OR
SHINGLE
5. MAKE THE PARTS SYMMETRICAL
6. IF PARTS CANNOT BE MADE SYMMETRICAL , AVOID SLIGHT
ASYMMETRY OR ASYMMETRY RELUTING FROM SMALL OR NON
GEOMETRICAL FEATURES
7. PROVIDE CHAMFERS , TAPERS ,
8. AVOID TIME CONSUMING FASTENING OPERATIONS
(SCREWS , SOLDERING ETC

107
 PRODUCT DESIGN FOR ROBOT ASSEMBLY

1. REDUCE PART COUNT

2. FEATURES SUCH AS LEADS , LIPS , CHAMFERS – SELF ALIGNING IN
ASSEMBLY.
CONSISTENT FAULT FREE PART INSERTIONS
3. SELF LOCATION – IMPORTANT FOR MULTI STATION ROBOT ASSEMBLY
OR ON ARM SINGLE STATION SYSTEMS. SPECIAL FIXTURING ,
TOOLING
4. GRIPPING AND INSERTION BY SAME ROBOT GRIPPER
5. ASSEMBLED IN LAYER FASHION „Z‟ AXIS ASSEMBLY
6. AVOID THE NEED FOR REORIENTING THE PARTIAL ASSEMBLY

108
EFFECT OF PART SYMMETRY ON HANDLING TIME

FACTORS :
1) ALIGNMENT OF AXIS OF PART THAT CORRESPONDS TO THE AXIS OF
INSERTIONS
2) ROTATION OF THE PART ABOUT THIS AXIS

TWO KINDS OF SYMMETRY FOR A PART

1. ALPHA SYMMETRY :
DEPENDS ON THE ANGLE THROUGH WHICH A PART MUST BE
ROTATED ABOUT AN AXIS PERPENIDICULAR TO THE AXIS OF
INSERTION TO REPEAT ITS ORIENTATION
2. BETA SYMMETRY
DEPENDS ON THE ANGLE THROUGH WHICH A PART MUST BE
ROTATED ABOUT THE AXIS OF INSERTION TO REPEAT ITS
ORIENTATION

TWO SYSTEMS
MTM SYSTEM : METHODS TIME MEASUREMENT

WF : WORK FACTOR

109
WF SYSTEM : SYMMETRY OF A PART IS CLASSIFIED BY THE
RATIO OF THE

NUMBER OF WAYS THE PART CAN BE INSERTED

NUMBER OF WAYS PART CAN BE GRASPED PREPARATORY TO
INSERTION

EG: SQUARE PRISM INTO SQUARE HOLE

4 WAYS IT CAN BE INSERTED

8 WAYS IT CAN BE GRASPED

WF = 4 = ½ ; 50% ORIENTATION
8
TOTAL ANGLE OF SYMMETRY = α + β 110
 EFFECT OF PART THICKNESS AND SIZE ON HANDLING TIME
CYLINDER : THICKNESS = DIA
THICKNESS GREATER THAN 2mm PRESENT NO GRASPING OR HANDLING
PROBLEM
SIZE : LARGEST NON DIAGONAL DIMENSION

“LENGTH OF THE PART”

EFFECT OF WEIGHT ON HANDLING TIME

111