MAGNETIC FIELD

CHAPTER 18

PREPARED BY,
[Link] RASHEED KHAN,
COORDINATOR
BAHRIA COLLEGE KARSAZ, KARACHI.
CONTACT # 03222996141, 03333146094.
 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

* MAGNETIC FIELD OF INDUCTION:

When an electric charge is stationary, it is not influenced by magnetic field, But an electric charge
in motion produce around it a field which is fundamentally of a different type from electric field
(This field exerts force on other charges only when charges move in the field). This field is called
the magnetic field intensity or Magnetic flux density. Its S.I unit is Newton per ampere per meter
which is also called as weber/𝑚2 OR tesla (T).

* FORCE ON A CHARGE MOVING IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD:

Consider a point charge of magnitude “q” moving in a uniform magnetic field of induction having
strength B with a velocity v. The angle between velocity and magnetic intensity is “θ”. Force
experienced by the charge depends directly upon the following factors:

i. The magnitude q of the charge:

F ∝ q …………………………(1)
ii. The component of velocity of the charge v sinθ perpendicular to magnetic field:
F ∝ v sinθ ……………………………(2)
iii. The strength of magnetic field:
F ∝ B ……………………………..(3)

By combining above three relations:

F ∝ qvB Sin θ
F = Constant x qvB Sinθ

The constant of proportionality depends upon the system of units used. If 1 coulombs charge
perpendicularly in a magnetic field of 1 tesla with a velocity of 1m/s and experiences a force of 1N
then in S.I system of units value of this constant will be unity. Therefore,
F = qvB
Sinθ

𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗)

CONDITION OF MAXIMA:
Force on a charged particle in a magnetic field will maximum if it enters perpendicularly in the
magnetic field, i.e. the angle between field B and velocity b is θ = 90°.

F = qvB Sin90° or (as sin90° = 1)

F = qvB

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 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

CONDITION OF MINIMA:
Force of a charged particle in a magnetic field will be minimum if it enters along the direction of
magnetic field, i.e. the angle field B an velocity v is θ = 0°.

F = qvB Sin0°

F=0 (as sin0° = 0)

DIRECTION OF FORCE:
The force on a charged particle always acts
Perpendicularly on the plane defined by velocity of
charged Particle v and the magnetic field B.
Mathematically,
𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗)

FORCE ON A CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD:

A wire placed in magnetic field experiences a force when electric current is passed through it. It is
due to the free electrons present in the conductor.

Consider a conductor wire of length “L” placed in magnetic field B. Let “A” be the cross-sectional
area of the wire and “n” be the number of free electrons in unit volume of wire. The charge moving
through the unit volume of elements is

q = nA Le

As the force on a charged particle moving in a magnetic field is given by:

𝐹⃗ = 𝑞(𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ )

𝐹⃗ = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝐿 (𝑣⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗) − − − − − − − − − (1)

If the direction of drift velocity is specified by unit vector r then,

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑣 𝑟̂
𝑣

equation (1) => 𝐹⃗ = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝐿 (𝑣 𝑟̂ × 𝐵

⃗⃗) ………………..(2)

𝐹⃗ = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣 (𝐿 𝑟̂ × 𝐵
⃗⃗)

But ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐿 𝑟̂
𝐿

Equation(2) => 𝐹⃗ = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣 (𝐿⃗⃗ × 𝐵

⃗⃗) -------------(3)

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 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

Where L is the vector length. The magnitude of velocity of charge passing through length L of
conductor in time f is given by,
𝐿
v=𝑡

𝑛𝑒𝐴𝐿
⃗
equation (3) => 𝐹 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
(𝐿 ⃗⃗)
𝑡
𝑛𝑒𝐴𝐿 𝑞
but = =I
𝑡 𝑡

𝐹⃗ = 𝐼 (𝐿⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗)

OR F = BIL Sinθ
CONDITION OF MAXIMA:
Force on a current carrying conductor will be minimum when conductor is placed perpendicularly
on to the field, that is the angle between field B and vector length L is θ = 90°

F = BIL Sin90°

F = BIL (as Sin90° = 1)

CONDITION OF MINIMA:
Force on a current carrying conductor will be minimum when conductor is placed parallel to the
field, that is the angle between field B and vector length L is θ = 0°

F = BIL Sin0°

F=0 (as Sin0°= 0)

DIRECTION OF FORCE:
The force on a wire in a magnetic field acts perpendicularly on the plane of L the vector length and
magnetic field B.

* TORQUE ON A CURRENT CARRYING COIL IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC

FIELD:
Consider a rectangular coil ABCDA Placed in a uniform
magnetic field B with its plane parallel to the field and
“I” current is flowing through it. The sides AB and CD are

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 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

the length of the coil represented by “L”, as shown in

figure.

The force experienced by the conductor placed in a

magnetic field is given by:

F = BIL Sinθ

Since sides AB and CD are parallel to the field, so they will not experienced any force but BC and
DA are at right angle to the field, so the force experienced by these sides of coil is represented
by:-

F = BIL

Since the force always acts perpendicular to the plane of (L x B) so by applying the right hand rule,
the direction of the force on side BC is found to be outward on the plane of paper and for
side DA the direction of force is found to be inward
on the plane of paper, therefore a couple is acting
on the coil which will cause the coil to rotate about
axis.
The torque of a couple of force is equal to the
product of the magnitude of the couple of the force
and the perpendicular distance between them,
which is the width of the coil “b”, therefore
τ=Fxb
If the coil is so placed that its plane makes an angle “α” with the magnetic field B then
perpendicular distance (force arm) is given by:
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑚
Cosα = or force arm = bcosα
𝑏

Now the torque acting on the coil is given by:

τ = Fb Cosα

OR τ = BIL b Cosα

Where Lb= A; the area of the coil

τ = BIA Cosα

If “N” is the number of turns of the coil, then

τ = BIAN Cosα

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 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

CONDITION OF MAXIMA:
Torque in a coil will be maximum when plane of coil is placed parallel to the magnetic field i.e. α
= 0°

τ = BIAN

CONDITION OF MINIMA:
Torque in a coil will be minimum when plane of coil is perpendicular on the magnetic field i.e. α =
90°

τ=0

*DETERMINATION OF CHARGE TO MASS RATIO (e/m) OF AN

ELECTRON:
Sir J.J Thomson determined the charge to mass ratio electron in 1897 by noting down the
deflection in the path of a beam of electron in uniform magnetic field.

CONSTRUCTION:
The apparatus consist of a discharge tube having a tungsten filament, which is a cathode. When
the filament is heated, electrons are ejected from it and are accelerated by a voltage ‘V’
applied by the slits. Electrons by
travelling in a straight line hit the screen
at luminous point O. When a magnetic
field ‘B’ is applied perpendicularly on
electron beam, it deviates from their
path and hit the screen at luminous
point O’ by following a circular path of
radius ‘r’. Hence electron beam is acted
upon by magnetic and centripetal force,
such that.
Fmag = Fc

𝑚(𝑣𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃)2
OR evBsinθ =
𝑟

𝑚𝑣𝑆inθ
eB =
𝑟

𝑒 𝑣𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
=
𝑚 𝐵𝑟

Since the motion of electrons is perpendicular to the magnetic lines of induction, i.e. θ = 90°,
therefore,
𝑒 𝑣
=
𝑚 𝐵𝑟

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 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

In the above equation by putting the value on R.H.S, charge to mass ratio of electrons could be
determined. Radius of circular arc of electron beam can be determined by knowing the shift of
light spot, given by,
𝑏2
r=
2𝑎
Where ‘b’ is the distance travelled by electrons in the tube and ‘a’ is the shift of luminous light
spot.

DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY OF ELECTRONS:

The velocity of electron can be determined by two methods, which are as follows:

i) POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE METHOD

As electrons are accelerated in the magnetic field by applying a high potential
difference ‘V’ so it can be assumed that the Kinetic energy of electrons is equal to the
electrical work done on electrons.
1
m𝑣 2 = eV
2

2𝑒V
OR 𝑣2 =
𝑚

2𝑒V
V= √
𝑚

𝑒 1 2𝑒V
equ(1) => = √
𝑚 𝐵𝑟 𝑚

𝑒2 1 2𝑒V
= x
𝑚 2
𝐵2 𝑟 2 𝑚

OR
𝑒 2V
= 2 2
𝑚 𝐵 𝑟

Above equation provides the charge to mass ratio of electron of the accelerating
potential of electron is known.

ii) PATRICLE VELOCITY SELECTOR METHOD:

By considering the electric and magnetic fields set in the tube, velocity of electron can
be determined also. Since both the fields are perpendicular on each other, therefore,

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 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

intensity of electric field is gradually adjusted such that the luminous spot comes back
from ‘O’ to ‘O’.
Since electrons travel undeflected through the crossed electric and magnetic field,
therefore,
Fmag = Fe
evB = eE
𝐸
v=
𝐵

𝑒 𝐸/𝐵
eq (1) => =
𝑚 𝐵𝑟

OR 𝑒 𝐸
=
𝑚 𝐵2 𝑟

The charge to mass ratio of electron thus found to be 1.7588 x 1011 Coul/Kg.

* BIOT-SAVAT’S LAW:
The relation between the magnetic field of a current
carrying conductor and current passing through a
conductor was studied by Biot and Savat.

Consider a long straight wire carrying a current “I” and a

closed curve consisting of a circle of radius ‘r’ with the wire
at the centre as shown in the figure.

Biot and Savat deduced from the experience that the magnitude of magnetic field ‘B’ around a
long straight current carrying conductor is directly Proportional to the twice of current I passing
through the conductor and is inversely Proportional to the distance ‘r’ from the conductor,
mathematically.
2𝐼
B ∝
𝑟

𝜇0 2𝐼
B= x
4𝜋 𝑟

μ0 I
B=
2πr

Where μ0 is the constant called the permeability of force space and its value is 4π x 10−7
weber/A.m.

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 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

*AMPERE’S LAW:-
STATEMENT: “The sum of dot product of tangential component of magnetic field of induction
and the length of an element of a closed curve taken in the magnetic field is 𝝁𝟎 times the current
passing through the conductor.”

PROOF: A current carrying conductor has a magnetic field around it. Ampere’s Law provides the
relation between the magnetic flux density and the current enclosed.

Consider a long straight wire carrying a current ‘I’ with a

magnetic field in the form of a closed curve consisting of a
circle of radius ‘r’ around it. Let us divide the magnetic field
into a large number of small length of element is along the
direction of magnetic field which is tangent on the circle at
each length of element is along the direction of magnetic
field which is tangent on the circle at each length of element
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝐿. Taking sum of dot product of tangential component of
magnetic field with all length of elements.

𝑛 𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 )𝑖 = ∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 )𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

𝑛 𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )𝑖 = ∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0° )𝑖
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ∆𝐿
∑(𝐵
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

𝑛 𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )𝑖 = ∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 × 1)𝑖
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ∆𝐿
∑(𝐵
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

𝑛 𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )𝑖 = ∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿)𝑖
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ∆𝐿
∑(𝐵
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

As tangential component of magnetic field ‘B’

remains constant at all length of elements, therefore,

𝑛 𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )𝑖 = 𝐵 ∑(∆𝐿)𝑖
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ∆𝐿
∑(𝐵
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ∑(∆𝐿)𝑖 = 2 πr
𝑖=1

μ0 I
the circumference of the circle and ‘B’ is given by the Biot – Savat’s Law as B =
2πr

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 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

𝑛
μ0 I
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 )𝑖 = (2πr)
2πr
𝑖=1

𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 )𝑖 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝑖=1

𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )𝑖 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ∆𝐿
∑(𝐵
𝑖=1

This relation is called Ampere’s Law.

*APPLICATIONS OF AMPER’S LAW:

1) FIELD DUE TO SOENOID:

DEFINITION: A Solenoid is a long hollow pipe on which wire is wounded. The turns of the winding
are closely spaced and may consist of one or more layers. The magnetic field produced by the
solenoid in the middle of the solenoid is stronger and uniform but it is weaker and negligible
outside the solenoid because magnetic lines are crowded and runs parallel with the axis of
solenoid inside but they diverge outside the solenoid.

DERIVATION FOR ‘B’

In order to determine the magnetic field B, consider a rectangular path abcda as shown in the
figure Let this side be divided into four elements of lengths as, ab = L1 , bc = L2 , cd = L3 , da = L4 .
Such that the sum of dot product of magnetic field and the length of element is,
𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 )𝑖 = 𝐵𝐿1 cos 𝜃1 + 𝐵𝐿2 cos 𝜃2 + 𝐵𝐿3 cos 𝜃3 + 𝐵𝐿4 cos 𝜃4
𝑖=1

As L1 is parallel to the magnetic field and lies inside the solenoid therefore,

θ = 0°

BL1 Cosθ1 = BL1

L2 and L4 are perpendicular to the

Magnetic field i.e. θ2 = 90° and θ4 = 90°

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 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

BL2Cosθ2 = 0

And BL4Cosθ4 = 0

And L3 lies outside the solenoid where the field is negligibly weaker,

i.e. B=0

BL3Cosθ = 0

Putting all the values in eq (1).

𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 )𝑖 = 𝐵𝐿1 + 0 + 0 + 0
𝑖=1
𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 )𝑖 = 𝐵𝐿1 − − − − − − − −(2)
𝑖=1

According to the ampere’s law

𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 )𝑖 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 − − − − − − − (3)
𝑖=1

If N is the number of coil then

Current = NI
And if ‘n’ is the number of turns per unit length, then
𝑁
n=
𝐿1

N = nL1
Current = nL1I

Eq (3) => ⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

∑𝑛𝑖=1(𝐵 ∆𝐿 )𝑖 = 𝑛𝐿1 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
By comparing equation (2) and (4), we get
μ.nL1I = BL1
OR
B = μ0nI

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 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

2) Field due to a Toroid:

Definition: A Toroid or a toroidal coil is a circular solenoid. When a current pass through a toroid
circular magnetic lines of induction form inside the toroid. The field outside the toroid is almost
zero, as magnetic lines are confined inside of the toroid only.

DERIVATION FOR ‘B’

For determining the field B, let us divide the loop into a large number of very small elements, so
that each element is considered as straight. The direction of B at any point is tangent to the circle
passing through that point and having center at the center of the toroid. By symmetry B is constant
everywhere along the loop and its direction is parallel to each of the elementary length ΔL, such
that the sum of all dot products of B and ΔL is given by

𝑛 𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 )𝑖 = ∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 )𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

𝑛 𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 )𝑖 = ∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0° )𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

𝑛 𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 )𝑖 = ∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 × 1)𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

𝑛 𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 )𝑖 = ∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿)𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

As tangential component of magnetic field ‘B’ remains constant at all length of elements,
therefore,

𝑛 𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ )𝑖 = 𝐵 ∑(∆𝐿)𝑖
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ∆𝐿
∑(𝐵
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, ∑(∆𝐿)𝑖 = 2 πr = circumference of TOROID

𝑖=1

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 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

∆𝐿 )𝑖 = 𝐵 (2πr) − − − − − − − −(1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵
𝑖=1

But according to Amperes Law

𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 )𝑖 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑖=1

If I is the current flowing through each turn of the toroid “N” then total current enclosed will be
NI. Therefore,
𝑛
⃗⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∑(𝐵 ∆𝐿 )𝑖 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼 − − − − − − − (2)
𝑖=1

By comparing eq. (1) and (2) we get =>

μ0NI = B x 2πr

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
B=
2𝜋𝑟

* MAGNETIC FLUX:
The measure of magnetic lines of force passing through a given area placed in a magnetic field
is called as Magnetic flux or mathematically it is defined as the dot product of flux density and
vector area,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = BΔA Cosθ

⃗⃗ . ∆𝐴
∆∅𝑚 = 𝐵

where θ is the angle between B and ΔA. Flux will be maximum when magnitude lines of induction
and surface area are parallel to each other, i.e. θ=0° and minimum when surface area and
magnetic lines of induction are perpendicular on each other i.e. θ=90° . S.I unit of Magnetic flux
is Weber.

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 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

THE MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER:

The moving coil galvanometer is a basic electrical instrument. It is used for the detection
or measurement of small electric currents.
PRINCIPLE:
When the current flows in a rectangular coil placed in a magnetic field it experiences a
magnetic torque due to which it rotates through an angle proportional to the current flowing
through it.
CONSTRUCTION:
The essential parts of a moving coil galvanometer
are.
1) A U shaped permanent magnet with
cylindrical concave pole piece.

2) A flat coil of thin enamel insulated wire

(usually rectangular).

3) A soft iron cylinder

4) A pointer or mirror

5) A scale or lamp and scale arrangement.

6) Spring or spiral.

FUNCTION OF THE PARTS:

1) The U shaped magnet having concave pole pieces produces radial magnetic field.
2) The sot iron cylinder helps in keeping the field stronger and radial.
3) The rectangular coil suspended between the pole pieces rotates when current passes
through it.
4) The mirror or pointer shown deflection produced in the coil.
5) The scale gives the quantity of deflection.
6) The suspension strip and spring or spiral produces restoring torque. They bring the coil
block to its initial position when current stops flowing. One end of the strip and one end of
the spiral spring radial magnetic field spring also acts as current lead.
All the parts are connected according to the figure.

WORKING:
When a current passes through the galvanometer coil it experiences a magnetic deflecting
torque which tends to rotate it form a twist in the suspension strip. The twist in the strip
produces an elastic restoring torque. The coil rotates until the elastic restoring torque due
to the strip does not equal and cancel the deflection magnetic torque and then it attains
equilibrium and stops rotating any further. In this case,
Deflecting torque = restoring torque.

Deflecting torque = BINA cos 

And restoring torque = c 

BINA cos  = C𝜃

𝐶
I = (𝐵𝐴𝑁 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼) 𝜃

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 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

Since the field is radial  = 0 and cos  = 1

𝐶
I = (𝐵𝐴𝑁) 𝜃

Where B = strength of the magnetic field, I = current in the coil, A=

area of the coil,
N = number of turns in the coil,  = Angle of twist of the suspension strip
C = torque per unit twist of the suspension strip for equilibrium.

𝐼

In pivoted type:
Or Weston galvanometer by a strip is pivoted between two jeweled bearings. The restoring
torque is provided by two hair springs one on either side of the coil and cutting in the
opposite sense. The two ends of the coil are connected one to each spring. The hair spring
thus also serve as current leads to the coil. A light aluminum pointer is fixed to the coil
which moves over a calibrated circular scale with equal divisions which measure the
deflection directly.
Current sensitivity of a galvanometer:
The current sensitivity of a galvanometer defined as the current in microphones required
to produce deflection of 1 division i.e 1mm on a scale placed at a distance of 1m from the
mirror of the galvanometer. A galvanometer is said to be sensitive of a small current
produces large deflection in it.

Factors on which sensitivity depends:

𝐵𝐴𝑁
Sensitivity of a galvanometer depends upon 𝐶 to make galvanometer sensitive C should
be small or BAN should be large.
(1)C can be made small by making suspension wire thin and large but it makes suspension
wire weak or galvanometer large.
2) A can be increased by making large frame but it makes the coil heavy.
3) N can be increased by increasing number of turns but it makes the coil heavy.
4) B can be increased by using strong magnet. This method is adopted to make
galvanometer more sensitive.

THE AMMETER:
Ammeter is an instrument which is used for measuring electric current.
Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter:
A galvanometer can measure small current and its scale is calibrated for the current. For
the measurement of large current a bypass resistance called a shunt of appropriate small
value is connected in parallel with galvanometer coil. This resistance allows the large
excess current through itself while a function of the current passes though the
galvanometer coil. The scale of the instruments is so calibrated that it can measure current
directly.
Derivation:
Consider a galvanometer G whose resistance is Rg and which gives full scale deflection
when current Ig flows through it. To convert this galvanometer I to an ammeter which an
measure a maximum current I a shunt Rs of appropriate small resistance should be
connected in parallel with galvanometer such that the current I g must flow through the
galvanometer coil as shown in the figure. The potential difference V g across the
galvanometer is given by Vg = IgRg the potential differences Vs across the shunt is given
by,

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 MAGNETIC FIELD:: CHAPTER 18

Vs = Is Rs = (I-Ig) Rs
Where Is=I-Ig current though the shunt.
As Rg and Rs are connected in parallel to each other therefore potential difference across
them will be equal

Vs = Vg

(𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 ) 𝑅𝑠 = 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔

𝐼𝑔
𝑅𝑠 = (𝐼− 𝐼 ) 𝑅𝑔
𝑔

This expression is called expression for shunt resistance is required for conversion of
galvanometer into I range of an ammeter.

THE VOLTMETER:
Voltmeter is an instrument which is used for measuring potential difference the terminals
of loads in a circuit.
Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter:
A galvanometer can be used for measuring a very small potential difference if its scale is
calibrated for voltage for the measurement of large potential difference a high resistance
of the order of kilo ohms is connected in series with it. This resistance is commonly known
as multiplier resistance and denoted by Rx.
Derivation:
Consider a galvanometer G whose resistance is Rg and which deflects full scale for the
current Ig. To convert this galvanometer in to a voltmeter measuring a potential difference
of range ‘V’ a high resistance Rx must be connected in series with galvanometer such that
for the potential difference V applied between the ends of the above combination the
current Ig must flow through the galvanometer as shown in the figure. Now the total
resistance between the terminals a and c is (Rx + Rg).
By Ohms law,

𝑉𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 + 𝑉𝑏𝑐

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑥 + 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔

𝑉
𝑅𝑥 = − 𝑅𝑔
𝐼𝑔
Voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the circuit.

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