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Python Programming Language

Features in Python

 Easy to code: Python is a high-level programming language. ...

 Free and Open Source: ...
 Object-Oriented Language: ...
 GUI Programming Support: ...
 High-Level Language: ...
 Extensible feature: ...
 Python is Portable language: ...
 Python is Integrated language:

History of python

Python is a programming language; in fact it was released by its designer, Guido

Van Rossum, in February 1991 while working for CWI also known as Stitching
Mathematics Centrum.
Python is a language that’s focused on simplicity and ease of use. It’s
multiparadigm, allowing programmers to write code in object-oriented, structural,
or functional programming styles.
Today, it’s widely used in multiple fields, such as machine learning (frameworks
like TensorFlow and Keras) and web development. After JavaScript, it is the most
used programming language in the world.

The future of Python

So where is Python going?

There are a couple of areas where Python is strong at right now:
Web development
With frameworks like Django and Flask, it’s a great option for quick and simple web
development.

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Machine learning
Python has the best support for ML across all programming languages because of
heavyweight libraries like TensorFlow and Keras. Furthermore, Python’s easy
syntax and simplicity makes it the programming language of choice for ML experts
and data scientists.
Data science
Python has wonderful tools for data analysis and visualization, making it a
reasonable choice at any point in a data pipeline.

Python Keywords
False await else import pass

None break except in raise

True class finally is return

and continue for lambda try

as def from nonlocal while

assert del global not with

async elif if or yield

Keywords are the reserved words in Python.

We cannot use a keyword as a variable name, function name or any other
identifier. They are used to define the syntax and structure of the Python language.
In Python, keywords are case sensitive.
There are 33 keywords in Python 3.7. This number can vary slightly over the
course of time.

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All the keywords except True, False and None are in lowercase and they must be
written as they are.

Python Identifiers

An identifier is a name given to entities like class, functions, variables, etc. It helps
to differentiate one entity from another.

Rules for writing identifiers

1. Identifiers can be a combination of letters in lowercase (a to z) or uppercase (A to

Z) or digits (0 to 9) or an underscore _. Names
like myClass, var_1 and print_this_to_screen, all are valid example.
2. An identifier cannot start with a digit. 1variable is invalid, but variable1 is a valid
name.
3. Keywords cannot be used as identifiers.
global = 1

What is a Variable in Python?

A Python variable is a reserved memory location to store values. In other words, a

variable in a python program gives data to the computer for processing.

Python Variable Types

Every value in Python has a datatype. Different data types in Python are Numbers,
List, Tuple, Strings, Dictionary, etc. Variables in Python can be declared by any
name or even alphabets like a, aa, abc, etc.
A variable is a named location used to store data in the memory. It is helpful to
think of variables as a container that holds data that can be changed later in the
program. For example,

number = 10

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Example 3: Assigning multiple values to multiple variables

a, b, c = 5, 3.2, "Hello"
print (a)
print (b)
print (c)

Constants

A constant is a type of variable whose value cannot be changed. It is helpful to

think of constants as containers that hold information which cannot be changed
later.
You can think of constants as a bag to store some books which cannot be replaced
once placed inside the bag.

Create a [Link]:
PI = 3.14
GRAVITY = 9.8

Create a [Link]:
import constant

print([Link])
print([Link])

Rules and Naming Convention for Variables and constants

1. Constant and variable names should have a combination of letters in lowercase (a
to z) or uppercase (A to Z) or digits (0 to 9) or an underscore (_). For example:
snake_case
MACRO_CASE
camelCase
CapWords
2. Create a name that makes sense. For example, vowel makes more sense than v.
3. If you want to create a variable name having two words, use underscore to separate
them. For example:
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my_name
current_salary
4. Use capital letters possible to declare a constant. For example:
PI
G
MASS
SPEED_OF_LIGHT
TEMP
5. Never use special symbols like !, @, #, $, %, etc.
6. Don't start a variable name with a digit.

Literals

Literal is a raw data given in a variable or constant. In Python, there are various
types of literals they are as follows:

Numeric Literals
Numeric Literals are immutable (unchangeable). Numeric literals can belong to 3
different numerical types: Integer, Float, and Complex.

Example 4: How to use Numeric literals in Python?

a = 0b1010 #Binary Literals

b = 100 #Decimal Literal
c = 0o310 #Octal Literal
d = 0x12c #Hexadecimal Literal

#Float Literal
float_1 = 10.5
float_2 = 1.5e2

#Complex Literal
x = 3.14j

print(a, b, c, d)
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print(float_1, float_2)
print(x, [Link], [Link])

Output
10 100 200 300
10.5 150.0
3.14j 3.14 0.0
In the above program,
 We assigned integer literals into different variables. Here, a is binary literal, b is a
decimal literal, c is an octal literal and d is a hexadecimal literal.
 When we print the variables, all the literals are converted into decimal values.
 10.5 and 1.5e2 are floating-point literals. 1.5e2 is expressed with exponential and
is equivalent to 1.5 * 102 .
 We assigned a complex literal i.e 3.14j in variable x. Then we
use imaginary literal ([Link]) and real literal ([Link]) to create imaginary and real
parts of complex numbers.

String literals

A string literal is a sequence of characters surrounded by quotes. We can use both

single, double, or triple quotes for a string. And, a character literal is a single
character surrounded by single or double quotes.

Example 7: How to use string literals in Python?

strings = "This is Python"

char = "C"
multiline_str = """This is a multiline string with more than one line code."""
unicode = u"\u00dcnic\u00f6de"
raw_str = r"raw \n string"

print(strings)
print(char)
print(multiline_str)

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print(unicode)
print(raw_str)
Output
This is Python
C
This is a multiline string with more than one line code.
Ünicöde
raw \n string

In the above program, This is Python is a string literal and C is a character literal.
The value in triple-quotes """ assigned to the multiline_str is a multi-line string
literal.
The string u"\u00dcnic\u00f6de" is a Unicode literal which supports characters
other than English. In this case, \u00dc represents Ü and \u00f6 represents ö.
r"raw \n string" is a raw string literal.

Boolean literals

A Boolean literal can have any of the two values: True or False.

Example 8: How to use boolean literals in Python?

x = (1 == True)
y = (1 == False)
a = True + 4
b = False + 10

print("x is", x)
print("y is", y)
print("a:", a)
print("b:", b)

Output
x is True

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y is False
a: 5
b: 10

In the above program, we use boolean literal True and False. In

Python, True represents the value as 1 and False as 0. The value
of x is True because 1 is equal to True. And, the value of y is False because 1 is
not equal to False.
Similarly, we can use the True and False in numeric expressions as the value. The
value of a is 5 because we add True which has a value of 1 with 4.
Similarly, b is 10 because we add the False having value of 0 with 10.

Special literals

Python contains one special literal i.e. None. We use it to specify that the field has
not been created.

Example 9: How to use special literals in Python?

drink = "Available"
food = None

def menu(x):
if x == drink:
print(drink)
else:
print(food)

menu(drink)
menu(food)

Output

Available
None

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In the above program, we define a menu function. Inside menu, when we set the
argument as drink then, it displays Available. And, when the argument is food, it
displays None.

Literal Collections

There are four different literal collections List literals, Tuple literals, Dict literals,
and Set literals.

Example 10: How to use literals collections in Python?

fruits = ["apple", "mango", "orange"] #list

numbers = (1, 2, 3) #tuple
alphabets = {'a':'apple', 'b':'ball', 'c':'cat'} #dictionary
vowels = {'a', 'e', 'i' , 'o', 'u'} #set

print(fruits)
print(numbers)
print(alphabets)
print(vowels)

Output

['apple', 'mango', 'orange']

(1, 2, 3)
{'a': 'apple', 'b': 'ball', 'c': 'cat'}
{'e', 'a', 'o', 'i', 'u'}

In the above program, we created a list of fruits, a tuple of numbers, a

dictionary dict having values with keys designated to each value and a set
of vowels.

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Data Types

Built-in Data Types

In programming, data type is an important concept.

Variables can store data of different types, and different types can do different
things.
Python has the following data types built-in by default, in these categories:

Text Type: str

Numeric Types: int, float, complex

Sequence Types: list, tuple, range

Mapping Type: dict

Set Types: set, frozenset

Boolean Type: bool

Binary Types: bytes, bytearray, memoryview

Getting the Data Type

You can get the data type of any object by using the type() function:
Example
Print the data type of the variable x:
x=5
print(type(x))

Setting the Data Type

In Python, the data type is set when you assign a value to a variable:

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Example Data Type

x = "Hello World" str

x = 20 int

x = 20.5 float

x = 1j complex

x = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"] list

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry") tuple

x = range(6) range

x = {"name" : "John", "age" : 36} dict

x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"} set

x = frozenset({"apple", "banana", "cherry"}) frozenset

x = True bool

x = b"Hello" bytes

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview

Setting the Specific Data Type

If you want to specify the data type, you can use the following constructor
functions:

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Example Data Type

x = str("Hello World") str

x = int(20) int

x = float(20.5) float

x = complex(1j) complex

x = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) list

x = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) tuple

x = range(6) range

x = dict(name="John", age=36) dict

x = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) set

x = frozenset(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) frozenset

x = bool(5) bool

x = bytes(5) bytes

x = bytearray(5) bytearray

x = memoryview(bytes(5)) memoryview

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Taking input in Python

Developers often have a need to interact with users, either to get data or to provide
some sort of result. Most programs today use a dialog box as a way of asking the
user to provide some type of input. While Python provides us with two inbuilt
functions to read the input from the keyboard.

 input ( prompt )

input ( ) : This function first takes the input from the user and
then evaluates the expression, which means Python
automatically identifies whether user entered a string or a
number or list. If the input provided is not correct then either
syntax error or exception is raised by python. For example –

val = input("Enter your value: ")

print(val)

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Operators

 Arithmetic Operators
 Comparison Operators
o Equality Comparison on Floating-Point Values
 Logical Operators
o Logical Expressions Involving Boolean Operands
o Evaluation of Non-Boolean Values in Boolean Context
o Logical Expressions Involving Non-Boolean Operands
o Compound Logical Expressions and Short-Circuit Evaluation
o Idioms That Exploit Short-Circuit Evaluation
o Chained Comparisons
 Bitwise Operators
 Identity Operators
 Operator Precedence
 Augmented Assignment Operators

Arithmetic Operators
The following table lists the arithmetic operators supported by Python:
Operator Example Meaning Result
+ (unary) +a Unary Positive a
In other words, it doesn’t really do
anything. It mostly exists for the sake
of completeness, to
complement Unary Negation.
+ (binary) a + b Addition Sum of a and b
- (unary) -a Unary Negation Value equal to a but opposite in sign
- (binary) a - b Subtraction b subtracted from a
* a*b Multiplication Product of a and b
/ a/b Division Quotient when a is divided by b.
The result always has type float.
% a%b Modulo Remainder when a is divided by b

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Operator Example Meaning Result

// a // b Floor Division (also Quotient when a is divided by b,
called Integer rounded to the next smallest whole
Division) number
** a ** b Exponentiation a raised to the power of b

Comparison Operators
Operator Example Meaning Result
== a == b Equal to True if the value of a is equal to the
value of b
False otherwise
!= a != b Not equal to True if a is not equal to b
False otherwise
< a<b Less than True if a is less than b
False otherwise
<= a <= b Less than or equal to True if a is less than or equal to b
False otherwise
> a>b Greater than True if a is greater than b
False otherwise
>= a >= b Greater than or True if a is greater than or equal to b
equal to False otherwise

Logical Operators
The logical operators not, or, and and modify and join together expressions
evaluated in Boolean context to create more complex conditions.

Operator Example Meaning

not not x True if x is False
False if x is True
(Logically reverses the sense of x)
or x or y True if either x or y is True
False otherwise

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Operator Example Meaning

and x and y True if both x and y are True
False otherwise

Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operators treat operands as sequences of binary digits and operate on them
bit by bit. The following operators are supported:

Operator Example Meaning Result

& a&b bitwise AND Each bit position in the result is the
logical AND of the bits in the corresponding
position of the operands. (1 if both are 1,
otherwise 0.)
| a|b bitwise OR Each bit position in the result is the
logical OR of the bits in the corresponding
position of the operands. (1 if either is 1,
otherwise 0.)
~ ~a bitwise negation Each bit position in the result is the logical
negation of the bit in the corresponding
position of the operand. (1 if 0, 0 if 1.)
^ a^b bitwise XOR Each bit position in the result is the
(exclusive OR) logical XOR of the bits in the
corresponding position of the operands. (1 if
the bits in the operands are different, 0 if
they are the same.)
>> a >> n Shift Each bit is shifted right n places.
right n places
<< a << n Shift left n places Each bit is shifted left n places.

Identity Operators
Python provides two operators, is and is not, that determine whether the given
operands have the same identity—that is, refer to the same object. This is not the
same thing as equality, which means the two operands refer to objects that contain
the same data but are not necessarily the same object.

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Here is an example of two object that are equal but not identical:
>>> x = 1001
>>> y = 1000 + 1
>>> print(x, y)
1001 1001
>>> x == y
True
>>> x is y
False

Here is the order of precedence of the Python operators you have seen so far, from
lowest to highest:
Operator Description
lowest or Boolean OR
precedence
and Boolean AND
not Boolean NOT
==, !=, <, <=, >, >=, is, is comparisons, identity
not
| bitwise OR
^ bitwise XOR
& bitwise AND
<<, >> bit shifts
+, - addition, subtraction
*, /, //, % multiplication, division, floor
division, modulo
+x, -x, ~x unary positive, unary negation,
bitwise negation
highest ** exponentiation
precedence

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Decision control statements

What is Decision Control Statement?

Decision Control statement is a statement that determines the control flow of a set
of instructions. means D.C.S decides the sequence in which instruction in the
program is to be executed.

The three fundamental methods of control flow in a programming language are -

1. Sequential Control

2. Selection Control

3. iterative Control

Sequential Control

-When the program is executed line by line means from the first line to the second
line then from the second line to the third line and so on. This method is called
Sequential Control.

Selection Control Statement

- When we execute only a selected set of statements then we use the Selection
control statement. It usually jumps from one part of the code to another depending
on whether a particular condition is satisfied or not.
In Selection Control Statement we learn about –

 If statement

 If -else statement

 If-elif-else statement

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If Statement

- The if statement is the simplest form of decision control statement that is

frequently used in decision making.
Syntax of If Statement

if (test_expression) :
statement1
…………..
statement n
statement x

If — else Statement

The use of If — else statement is very simple. When you run your program, The
test expression is evaluated and if the result is True, the statement followed by the
expression is executed, else if the expression is False, the statement followed by the
expression is executed.

Syntax of If — else Statement

if ( test expression ) :
statement block 1
else :
statement block 2
statement x

If — elif — else statement

Python supports if — elif — else statements to test additional conditions apart from
the initial test expression. The if- elif — else constructs works in the same way
as usual to if-else statement. One more thing to remember that it is not necessary
that every if statement should have an else block as python supports simple if
statements also.

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Syntax of If — elif — else statement

if ( test expression 1):

statement block 1

elif ( test expression 2 ):

statement block 2
…………………………

elif ( test expression N ):

statement block N

else:
statement block X
Statement Y

Python If ... Else

Python Conditions and If statements

Python supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

 Equals: a == b
 Not Equals: a != b
 Less than: a < b
 Less than or equal to: a <= b
 Greater than: a > b
 Greater than or equal to: a >= b

These conditions can be used in several ways, most commonly in "if statements"
and loops.

An "if statement" is written by using the if keyword.

Example

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If statement:

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")

In this example we use two variables, a and b, which are used as part of the if
statement to test whether b is greater than a. As a is 33, and b is 200, we know that
200 is greater than 33, and so we print to screen that "b is greater than a".
Indentation
Python relies on indentation (whitespace at the beginning of a line) to define scope
in the code. Other programming languages often use curly-brackets for this
purpose.

Example
If statement, without indentation (will raise an error):
a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a") # you will get an error

elif
The elif keyword is pythons way of saying "if the previous conditions were not
true, then try this condition".
Example
a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")

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In this example a is equal to b, so the first condition is not true, but

the elif condition is true, so we print to screen that "a and b are equal".

else
The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding conditions.

Example

a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")

In this example a is greater than b, so the first condition is not true, also
the elif condition is not true, so we go to the else condition and print to screen that
"a is greater than b".

You can also have an else without the elif:

Example
a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
else:
print("b is not greater than a")

Short Hand If
If you have only one statement to execute, you can put it on the same line as the if
statement.

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Example
One line if statement:
if a > b: print("a is greater than b")

Short Hand If ... Else

If you have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, you can put
it all on the same line:

Example
One line if else statement:
a=2
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("B")

This technique is known as Ternary Operators, or Conditional Expressions.

You can also have multiple else statements on the same line:

Example
One line if else statement, with 3 conditions:
a = 330
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("=") if a == b else print("B")

And
The and keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional
statements:
Example
Test if a is greater than b, AND if c is greater than a:
a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b and c > a:
print("Both conditions are True")

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Or
The or keyword is a logical operator, and is used to combine conditional
statements:

Example
Test if a is greater than b, OR if a is greater than c:
a = 200
b = 33
c = 500
if a > b or a > c:
print("At least one of the conditions is True")

Nested If
You can have if statements inside if statements, this is called nested if statements.
Example

x = 41
if x > 10:
print("Above ten,")
if x > 20:
print("and also above 20!")
else:
print("but not above 20.")

The pass Statement

if statements cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have an if statement with
no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.
Example
a = 33
b = 200

if b > a:
pass

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Loops

Python has two primitive loop commands:

 while loops
 for loops

The while Loop

With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as long as a condition is
true.
Example
Print i as long as i is less than 6:
i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop even if the while condition is true:
Example
Exit the loop when i is 3:

i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
if i == 3:
break
i += 1

The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration, and continue with
the next:
Example
Continue to the next iteration if i is 3:

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i=0
while i < 6:
i += 1
if i == 3:
continue
print(i)

The else Statement

With the else statement we can run a block of code once when the condition no
longer is true:
Example
Print a message once the condition is false:
i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1
else:
print("i is no longer less than 6")

For Loop
A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a tuple, a
dictionary, a set, or a string).

This is less like the for keyword in other programming languages, and works more
like an iterator method as found in other object-orientated programming languages.

With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in a list,
tuple, set etc.

Print each fruit in a fruit list:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)

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The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through all the
items:
Example
Exit the loop when x is "banana":

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)
if x == "banana":
break

The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration of the loop, and
continue with the next:

Example
Do not print banana:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
if x == "banana":
continue
print(x)

The range() Function

To loop through a set of code a specified number of times, we can use
the range() function,
The range() function returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 by default, and
increments by 1 (by default), and ends at a specified number.
Example
Using the range() function:
for x in range(6):
print(x)

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Else in For Loop

The else keyword in a for loop specifies a block of code to be executed when the
loop is finished:
Example
Print all numbers from 0 to 5, and print a message when the loop has ended:

for x in range(6):
print(x)
else:
print("Finally finished!")

Nested Loops
A nested loop is a loop inside a loop.
The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer loop":
Example
Print each adjective for every fruit:

adj = ["red", "big", "tasty"]

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in adj:
for y in fruits:
print(x, y)

The pass Statement

for loops cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a for loop with no
content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.
Example

for x in [0, 1, 2]:

pass

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Lists

List
Lists are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Lists are one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the
other 3 are Tuple, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
Lists are created using square brackets:

Example
Create a List:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

List Items
List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.
List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has
index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that lists are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order,
and that order will not change.
If you add new items to a list, the new items will be placed at the end of the list.
Note: There are some list methods that will change the order, but in general: the
order of the items will not change.

Changeable
The list is changeable, meaning that we can change, add, and remove items in a list
after it has been created.

Allow Duplicates
Since lists are indexed, lists can have items with the same value:

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Example
Lists allow duplicate values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry"]

print(thislist)

List Length
To determine how many items a list has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(len(thislist))

List Items - Data Types

List items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int and boolean data types:

list1 = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

list2 = [1, 5, 7, 9, 3]
list3 = [True, False, False]

A list can contain different data types:

Example
A list with strings, integers and boolean values:

list1 = ["abc", 34, True, 40, "male"]

type()
From Python's perspective, lists are defined as objects with the data type 'list':
<class 'list'>

Example

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What is the data type of a list?

mylist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(type(mylist))

The list() Constructor

It is also possible to use the list() constructor when creating a new list.
Example
Using the list() constructor to make a List:

thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(thislist)

Collections (Arrays)
There are four collection data types in the Python programming language:

 List is a collection which is ordered and changeable. Allows duplicate

members.
 Tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable. Allows duplicate
members.
 Set is a collection which is unordered and unindexed. No duplicate
members.
 Dictionary is a collection which is unordered and changeable. No duplicate
members.

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that

type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of
meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or security.

Access Items
List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the index number:
Example
Print the second item of the list:

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thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[1])

Note: The first item has index 0.

Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end
-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.
Example
Print the last item of the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[-1])

Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end
the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new list with the specified
items.
Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[2:5])

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.
By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:
Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT including, "kiwi":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[:4])

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:

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Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" to the end:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[2:])

Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the list:
Example
This example returns the items from "orange" (-4) to, but NOT including "mango"
(-1):

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[-4:-1])

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")

Python - Change List Items

Change Item Value
To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number:
Example
Change the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)

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Change a Range of Item Values

To change the value of items within a specific range, define a list with the new
values, and refer to the range of index numbers where you want to insert the new
values:
Example
Change the values "banana" and "cherry" with the values "blackcurrant" and
"watermelon":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]

thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)

If you insert more items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where you
specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:
Example
Change the second value by replacing it with two new values:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1:2] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)

Note: The length of the list will change when the number of items inserted does
not match the number of items replaced.

If you insert less items than you replace, the new items will be inserted where you
specified, and the remaining items will move accordingly:
Example
Change the second and third value by replacing it with one value:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1:3] = ["watermelon"]
print(thislist)

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Insert Items
To insert a new list item, without replacing any of the existing values, we can use
the insert() method.
The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:
Example
Insert "watermelon" as the third item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link](2, "watermelon")
print(thislist)

Add List Items

Append Items
To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method:
Example
Using the append() method to append an item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link]("orange")
print(thislist)

Insert Items
To insert a list item at a specified index, use the insert() method.
The insert() method inserts an item at the specified index:
Example
Insert an item as the second position:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link](1, "orange")
print(thislist)

Note: As a result of the examples above, the lists will now contain 4 items.

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Extend List
To append elements from another list to the current list, use the extend() method.
Example
Add the elements of tropical to thislist:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
[Link](tropical)
print(thislist)

The elements will be added to the end of the list.

Add Any Iterable

The extend() method does not have to append lists, you can add any iterable object
(tuples, sets, dictionaries etc.).
Example
Add elements of a tuple to a list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thistuple = ("kiwi", "orange")
[Link](thistuple)
print(thislist)

Remove List Items

Remove Specified Item

The remove() method removes the specified item.

Example
Remove "banana":

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link]("banana")
print(thislist)

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Remove Specified Index

The pop() method removes the specified index.
Example
Remove the second item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link](1)
print(thislist)

If you do not specify the index, the pop() method removes the last item.
Example
Remove the last item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link]()
print(thislist)

The del keyword also removes the specified index:

Example
Remove the first item:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist[0]
print(thislist)

The del keyword can also delete the list completely.

Example
Delete the entire list:
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
del thislist

Clear the List

The clear() method empties the list.

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The list still remains, but it has no content.

Example
Clear the list content:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[Link]()
print(thislist)

Loop Lists

Loop Through a List

You can loop through the list items by using a for loop:
Example
Print all items in the list, one by one:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in thislist:
print(x)

Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the list items by referring to their index number.
Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.
Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for i in range(len(thislist)):
print(thislist[i])

The iterable created in the example above is [0, 1, 2].

Using a While Loop

You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.

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Use the len() function to determine the length of the list, then start at 0 and loop
your way through the list items by refering to their indexes.
Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.
Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

i=0
while i < len(thislist):
print(thislist[i])
i=i+1

Learn more about while loops in our Python While Loops Chapter.

Looping Using List Comprehension

List Comprehension offers the shortest syntax for looping through lists:
Example
A short hand for loop that will print all items in a list:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[print(x) for x in thislist]

List Comprehension
List comprehension offers a shorter syntax when you want to create a new list
based on the values of an existing list.
Example:
Based on a list of fruits, you want a new list, containing only the fruits with the
letter "a" in the name.
Without list comprehension you will have to write a for statement with a
conditional test inside:
Example

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]

newlist = []

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for x in fruits:
if "a" in x:
[Link](x)
print(newlist)

With list comprehension you can do all that with only one line of code:
Example
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "kiwi", "mango"]
newlist = [x for x in fruits if "a" in x]
print(newlist)

The Syntax
newlist = [expression for item in iterable if condition == True]
The return value is a new list, leaving the old list unchanged.

Condition
The condition is like a filter that only accepts the items that valuate to True.
Example
Only accept items that are not "apple":

newlist = [x for x in fruits if x != "apple"]

The condition if x != "apple" will return True for all elements other than "apple",
making the new list contain all fruits except "apple".
The condition is optional and can be omitted:
Example
With no if statement:

newlist = [x for x in fruits]

Iterable
The iterable can be any iterable object, like a list, tuple, set etc.
Example

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You can use the range() function to create an iterable:

newlist = [x for x in range(10)]

Same example, but with a condition:

Example
Accept only numbers lower than 5:

newlist = [x for x in range(10) if x < 5]

Expression
The expression is the current item in the iteration, but it is also the outcome, which
you can manipulate before it ends up like a list item in the new list:
Example
Set the values in the new list to upper case:

newlist = [[Link]() for x in fruits]

You can set the outcome to whatever you like:

Example
Set all values in the new list to 'hello':

newlist = ['hello' for x in fruits]

The expression can also contain conditions, not like a filter, but as a way to
manipulate the outcome:
Example
Return "orange" instead of "banana":

newlist = [x if x != "banana" else "orange" for x in fruits]

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Sort Lists

Sort List Alphanumerically

List objects have a sort() method that will sort the list alphanumerically, ascending,
by default:
Example
Sort the list alphabetically:
thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]
[Link]()
print(thislist)

Example
Sort the list numerically:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

[Link]()
print(thislist)

Sort Descending
To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse = True:
Example
Sort the list descending:

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

[Link](reverse = True)
print(thislist)

Example
Sort the list descending:

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

[Link](reverse = True)
print(thislist)

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Customize Sort Function

You can also customize your own function by using the keyword argument key
= function.
The function will return a number that will be used to sort the list (the lowest
number first):
Example
Sort the list based on how close the number is to 50:

def myfunc(n):
return abs(n - 50)

thislist = [100, 50, 65, 82, 23]

[Link](key = myfunc)
print(thislist)

Case Insensitive Sort

By default the sort() method is case sensitive, resulting in all capital letters being
sorted before lower case letters:
Example
Case sensitive sorting can give an unexpected result:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

[Link]()
print(thislist)

Luckily we can use built-in functions as key functions when sorting a list.
So if you want a case-insensitive sort function, use [Link] as a key function:
Example
Perform a case-insensitive sort of the list:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

[Link](key = [Link])
print(thislist)

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Reverse Order
What if you want to reverse the order of a list, regardless of the alphabet?
The reverse() method reverses the current sorting order of the elements.
Example
Reverse the order of the list items:

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

[Link]()
print(thislist)

Copy a List
You cannot copy a list simply by typing list2 = list1, because: list2 will only be
a reference to list1, and changes made in list1 will automatically also be made
in list2.
There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in List method copy().
Example
Make a copy of a list with the copy() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = [Link]()
print(mylist)

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in method list().

Example
Make a copy of a list with the list() method:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)

Join Two Lists

There are several ways to join, or concatenate, two or more lists in Python.
One of the easiest ways are by using the + operator.
Example

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Join two list:

list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)

Another way to join two lists are by appending all the items from list2 into list1,
one by one:
Example
Append list2 into list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

for x in list2:
[Link](x)
print(list1)

Or you can use the extend() method, which purpose is to add elements from one
list to another list:
Example
Use the extend() method to add list2 at the end of list1:

list1 = ["a", "b" , "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

[Link](list2)
print(list1)

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List Methods

Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists.
Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current
list

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

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Tuples

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

Tuple
Tuples are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Tuple is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the
other 3 are List, Set, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
A tuple is a collection which is ordered and unchangeable.
Tuples are written with round brackets.
Example
Create a Tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple)

Tuple Items
Tuple items are ordered, unchangeable, and allow duplicate values.
Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has
index [1] etc.

Ordered
When we say that tuples are ordered, it means that the items have a defined order,
and that order will not change.

Unchangeable
Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change, add or remove items
after the tuple has been created.

Allow Duplicates
Since tuple are indexed, tuples can have items with the same value:
Example
Tuples allow duplicate values:

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thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple", "cherry")

print(thistuple)

Tuple Length
To determine how many items a tuple has, use the len() function:
Example
Print the number of items in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(len(thistuple))

Create Tuple With One Item

To create a tuple with only one item, you have to add a comma after the item,
otherwise Python will not recognize it as a tuple.
Example
One item tuple, remember the commma:

thistuple = ("apple",)
print(type(thistuple))

#NOT a tuple
thistuple = ("apple")
print(type(thistuple))

Tuple Items - Data Types

Tuple items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int and boolean data types:

tuple1 = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

tuple2 = (1, 5, 7, 9, 3)
tuple3 = (True, False, False)

A tuple can contain different data types:

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Example
A tuple with strings, integers and boolean values:

tuple1 = ("abc", 34, True, 40, "male")

type()
From Python's perspective, tuples are defined as objects with the data type 'tuple':
<class 'tuple'>
Example
What is the data type of a tuple?

mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(type(mytuple))

The tuple() Constructor

It is also possible to use the tuple() constructor to make a tuple.
Example
Using the tuple() method to make a tuple:

thistuple = tuple(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(thistuple)

When choosing a collection type, it is useful to understand the properties of that

type. Choosing the right type for a particular data set could mean retention of
meaning, and, it could mean an increase in efficiency or security.

Access Tuple Items

You can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square
brackets:
Example
Print the second item in the tuple:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
print(thistuple[1])
Note: The first item has index 0.

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Negative Indexing
Negative indexing means start from the end.
-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.
Example
Print the last item of the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[-1])

Range of Indexes
You can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end
the range.
When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with the specified
items.
Example
Return the third, fourth, and fifth item:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[2:5])

Note: The search will start at index 2 (included) and end at index 5 (not included).
Remember that the first item has index 0.
By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item:
Example
This example returns the items from the beginning to, but NOT included, "kiwi":

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[:4])

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list:
Example
This example returns the items from "cherry" and to the end:
thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")
print(thistuple[2:])

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Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the tuple:
Example
This example returns the items from index -4 (included) to index -1 (excluded)

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[-4:-1])

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "apple" is present in the tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")

Python - Update Tuples

Tuples are unchangeable, meaing that you cannot change, add, or remove items
once the tuple is created.
But there are some workarounds.

Change Tuple Values

Once a tuple is created, you cannot change its values. Tuples are unchangeable,
or immutable as it also is called.
But there is a workaround. You can convert the tuple into a list, change the list, and
convert the list back into a tuple.
Example
Convert the tuple into a list to be able to change it:
x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)
print(x)

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Add Items
Once a tuple is created, you cannot add items to it.
Example
You cannot add items to a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

[Link]("orange") # This will raise an error
print(thistuple)

Just like the workaround for changing a tuple, you can convert it into a list, add
your item(s), and convert it back into a tuple.
Example
Convert the tuple into a list, add "orange", and convert it back into a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(thistuple)
[Link]("orange")
thistuple = tuple(y)

Remove Items
Note: You cannot remove items in a tuple.
Tuples are unchangeable, so you cannot remove items from it, but you can use the
same workaround as we used for changing and adding tuple items:
Example
Convert the tuple into a list, remove "apple", and convert it back into a tuple:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(thistuple)
[Link]("apple")
thistuple = tuple(y)

Or you can delete the tuple completely:

Example
The del keyword can delete the tuple completely:

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thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

del thistuple
print(thistuple) #this will raise an error because the tuple no longer exists

Python - Unpack Tuples

Unpacking a Tuple
When we create a tuple, we normally assign values to it. This is called "packing" a
tuple:
Example
Packing a tuple:
fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

But, in Python, we are also allowed to extract the values back into variables. This
is called "unpacking":
Example
Unpacking a tuple:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

(green, yellow, red) = fruits
print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)

Note: The number of variables must match the number of values in the tuple, if
not, you must use an asterix to collect the remaining values as a list.

Using Asterisk*
If the number of variables is less than the number of values, you can add an * to
the variable name and the values will be assigned to the variable as a list:
Example
Assign the rest of the values as a list called "red":

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fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "strawberry", "raspberry")

(green, yellow, *red) = fruits
print(green)
print(yellow)
print(red)

If the asterix is added to another variable name than the last, Python will assign
values to the variable until the number of values left matches the number of
variables left.

Example
Add a list of values the "tropic" variable:

fruits = ("apple", "mango", "papaya", "pineapple", "cherry")

(green, *tropic, red) = fruits
print(green)
print(tropic)
print(red)

Loop Tuples

Loop Through a Tuple

You can loop through the tuple items by using a for loop.
Example
Iterate through the items and print the values:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for x in thistuple:
print(x)

Learn more about for loops in our Python For Loops Chapter.

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Loop Through the Index Numbers

You can also loop through the tuple items by referring to their index number.
Use the range() and len() functions to create a suitable iterable.
Example
Print all items by referring to their index number:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for i in range(len(thistuple)):
print(thistuple[i])

Using a While Loop

You can loop through the list items by using a while loop.
Use the len() function to determine the length of the tuple, then start at 0 and loop
your way through the tuple items by refering to their indexes.
Remember to increase the index by 1 after each iteration.
Example
Print all items, using a while loop to go through all the index numbers:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

i=0
while i < len(thistuple):
print(thistuple[i])
i=i+1

Python - Join Tuples

Join Two Tuples
To join two or more tuples you can use the + operator:
Example
Join two tuples:

tuple1 = ("a", "b" , "c")

tuple2 = (1, 2, 3)

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tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2

print(tuple3)

Multiply Tuples
If you want to multiply the content of a tuple a given number of times, you can use
the * operator:
Example
Multiply the fruits tuple by 2:

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

mytuple = fruits * 2
print(mytuple)

Tuple Methods
Python has two built-in methods that you can use on tuples.

Method Description

count() Returns the number of times a specified value occurs in a tuple

index() Searches the tuple for a specified value and returns the position
of where it was found

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Python Sets

Set
Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
Set is one of 4 built-in data types in Python used to store collections of data, the
other 3 are List, Tuple, and Dictionary, all with different qualities and usage.
A set is a collection which is both unordered and unindexed.
Sets are written with curly brackets.
Example
Create a Set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(thisset)

Note: Sets are unordered, so you cannot be sure in which order the items will
appear.

Set Items
Set items are unordered, unchangeable, and do not allow duplicate values.

Unordered
Unordered means that the items in a set do not have a defined order.
Set items can appear in a different order every time you use them, and cannot be
referred to by index or key.

Unchangeable
Sets are unchangeable, meaning that we cannot change the items after the set has
been created.
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Sets cannot have two items with the same value.
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Example
Duplicate values will be ignored:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry", "apple"}

print(thisset)

Get the Length of a Set

To determine how many items a set has, use the len() method.
Example
Get the number of items in a set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
print(len(thisset))

Set Items - Data Types

Set items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int and boolean data types:

set1 = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

set2 = {1, 5, 7, 9, 3}
set3 = {True, False, False}

A set can contain different data types:

Example
A set with strings, integers and boolean values:

set1 = {"abc", 34, True, 40, "male"}

type()
From Python's perspective, sets are defined as objects with the data type 'set':
<class 'set'>
Example
What is the data type of a set?

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myset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(type(myset))

The set() Constructor

It is also possible to use the set() constructor to make a set.
Example
Using the set() constructor to make a set:
thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets
print(thisset)

Access Items
You cannot access items in a set by referring to an index or a key.
But you can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask if a specified value
is present in a set, by using the in keyword.
Example
Loop through the set, and print the values:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)

Example
Check if "banana" is present in the set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print("banana" in thisset)

Change Items
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.

Add Items
Once a set is created, you cannot change its items, but you can add new items.
To add one item to a set use the add() method.
Example

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Add an item to a set, using the add() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

[Link]("orange")
print(thisset)

Add Sets
To add items from another set into the current set, use the update() method.
Example
Add elements from tropical and thisset into newset:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

tropical = {"pineapple", "mango", "papaya"}
[Link](tropical)
print(thisset)

Add Any Iterable

The object in the update() method does not have be a set, it can be any iterable
object (tuples, lists, dictionaries etc.).
Example
Add elements of a list to at set:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

mylist = ["kiwi", "orange"]
[Link](mylist)
print(thisset)

Remove Item
To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.
Example
Remove "banana" by using the remove() method:

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thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

[Link]("banana")
print(thisset)

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, remove() will raise an error.
Example
Remove "banana" by using the discard() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

[Link]("banana")
print(thisset)

Note: If the item to remove does not exist, discard() will NOT raise an error.
You can also use the pop() method to remove an item, but this method will remove
the last item. Remember that sets are unordered, so you will not know what item
that gets removed.

The return value of the pop() method is the removed item.

Example
Remove the last item by using the pop() method:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

x = [Link]()
print(x)
print(thisset)

Note: Sets are unordered, so when using the pop() method, you do not know
which item that gets removed.
Example
The clear() method empties the set:
thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
[Link]()
print(thisset)

Example
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The del keyword will delete the set completely:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

del thisset
print(thisset)

Loop Items
You can loop through the set items by using a for loop:
Example
Loop through the set, and print the values:

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)

Join Two Sets

There are several ways to join two or more sets in Python.
You can use the union() method that returns a new set containing all items from
both sets, or the update() method that inserts all the items from one set into
another:
Example
The union() method returns a new set with all items from both sets:
set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}
set2 = {1, 2, 3}
set3 = [Link](set2)
print(set3)

Example
The update() method inserts the items in set2 into set1:
set1 = {"a", "b" , "c"}
set2 = {1, 2, 3}
[Link](set2)
print(set1)

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Note: Both union() and update() will exclude any duplicate items.

Keep ONLY the Duplicates

The intersection_update() method will keep only the items that are present in both
sets.
Example
Keep the items that exist in both set x, and set y:

x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}
x.intersection_update(y)
print(x)

The intersection() method will return a new set, that only contains the items that
are present in both sets.
Example
Return a set that contains the items that exist in both set x, and set y:
x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}
z = [Link](y)
print(z)

Keep All, But NOT the Duplicates

The symmetric_difference_update() method will keep only the elements that are
NOT present in both sets.
Example
Keep the items that are not present in both sets:

x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}
x.symmetric_difference_update(y)
print(x)

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The symmetric_difference() method will return a new set, that contains only the
elements that are NOT present in both sets.
Example
Return a set that contains all items from both sets, except items that are present in
both:
x = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}
y = {"google", "microsoft", "apple"}
z = x.symmetric_difference(y)
print(z)

Set Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on sets.

Method Description

add() Adds an element to the set

clear() Removes all the elements from the set

copy() Returns a copy of the set

difference() Returns a set containing the difference between

two or more sets

difference_update() Removes the items in this set that are also

included in another, specified set

discard() Remove the specified item

intersection() Returns a set, that is the intersection of two other

sets

intersection_update() Removes the items in this set that are not present
in other, specified set(s)

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isdisjoint() Returns whether two sets have a intersection or

not

issubset() Returns whether another set contains this set or

not

issuperset() Returns whether this set contains another set or

not

pop() Removes an element from the set

remove() Removes the specified element

symmetric_difference() Returns a set with the symmetric differences of

two sets

symmetric_difference_update() inserts the symmetric differences from this set

and another

union() Return a set containing the union of sets

update() Update the set with the union of this set and
others

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Dictionaries
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

Dictionary

Dictionaries are used to store data values in key:value pairs.

A dictionary is a collection which is ordered*, changeable and does not allow
duplicates.
As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.
Dictionaries are written with curly brackets, and have keys and values:

Example
Create and print a dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict)

Dictionary Items
Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and does not allow duplicates.
Dictionary items are presented in key:value pairs, and can be referred to by using
the key name.

Example
Print the "brand" value of the dictionary:
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thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict["brand"])

Ordered or Unordered?
As of Python version 3.7, dictionaries are ordered. In Python 3.6 and earlier,
dictionaries are unordered.
When we say that dictionaries are ordered, it means that the items have a defined
order, and that order will not change.
Unordered means that the items does not have a defined order, you cannot refer to
an item by using an index.

Changeable
Dictionaries are changeable, meaning that we can change, add or remove items
after the dictionary has been created.

Duplicates Not Allowed

Dictionaries cannot have two items with the same key:
Example
Duplicate values will overwrite existing values:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964,
"year": 2020
}
print(thisdict)

Dictionary Length
To determine how many items a dictionary has, use the len() function:

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Example
Print the number of items in the dictionary:
print(len(thisdict))

Dictionary Items - Data Types

The values in dictionary items can be of any data type:
Example
String, int, boolean, and list data types:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"electric": False,
"year": 1964,
"colors": ["red", "white", "blue"]
}

type()
From Python's perspective, dictionaries are defined as objects with the data type
'dict':
<class 'dict'>
Example
Print the data type of a dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(type(thisdict))

Accessing Items
You can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside square
brackets:
Example
Get the value of the "model" key:

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thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = thisdict["model"]

There is also a method called get() that will give you the same result:
Example
Get the value of the "model" key:

x = [Link]("model")

Get Keys
The keys() method will return a list of all the keys in the dictionary.
Example
Get a list of the keys:
x = [Link]()

The list of the keys is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done to
the dictionary will be reflected in the keys list.
Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the keys list gets updated as
well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}x = [Link]()

print(x) #before the change

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car["color"] = "white"
print(x) #after the change

Get Values
The values() method will return a list of all the values in the dictionary.
Example
Get a list of the values:
x = [Link]()

The list of the values is a view of the dictionary, meaning that any changes done to
the dictionary will be reflected in the values list.
Example
Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets updated
as well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = [Link]()
print(x) #before the change
car["year"] = 2020
print(x) #after the change

Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the values list gets updated
as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

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x = [Link]()
print(x) #before the change
car["color"] = "red"
print(x) #after the change

Get Items
The items() method will return each item in a dictionary, as tuples in a list.
Example
Get a list of the key:value pairs
x = [Link]()

The returned list is a view of the items of the dictionary, meaning that any changes
done to the dictionary will be reflected in the items list.
Example
Make a change in the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets updated as
well:
car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = [Link]()
print(x) #before the change
car["year"] = 2020
print(x) #after the change

Example
Add a new item to the original dictionary, and see that the items list gets updated
as well:

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",

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"year": 1964
}

x = [Link]()
print(x) #before the change
car["color"] = "red"
print(x) #after the change

Check if Key Exists

To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:
Example
Check if "model" is present in the dictionary:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary")

Change Values
You can change the value of a specific item by referring to its key name:
Example
Change the "year" to 2018:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["year"] = 2018

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Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from the given
argument.
The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value pairs.
Example
Update the "year" of the car by using the update() method:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
[Link]({"year": 2020})

Adding Items
Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new index key and assigning a
value to it:
Example

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)

Update Dictionary
The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from a given
argument. If the item does not exist, the item will be added.
The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value pairs.
Example
Add a color item to the dictionary by using the update() method:

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thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
[Link]({"color": "red"})

Removing Items
There are several methods to remove items from a dictionary:

Example
The pop() method removes the item with the specified key name:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
[Link]("model")
print(thisdict)
Example

The popitem() method removes the last inserted item (in versions before 3.7, a
random item is removed instead):

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
[Link]()
print(thisdict)
Example

The del keyword removes the item with the specified key name:

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thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict["model"]
print(thisdict)
Example

The del keyword can also delete the dictionary completely:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict
print(thisdict) #this will cause an error because "thisdict" no longer exists.
Example

The clear() method empties the dictionary:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
[Link]()
print(thisdict)

Loop Through a Dictionary

You can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop.
When looping through a dictionary, the return value are the keys of the dictionary,
but there are methods to return the values as well.

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Example
Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one:
for x in thisdict:
print(x)

Example
Print all values in the dictionary, one by one:
for x in thisdict:
print(thisdict[x])

Example
You can also use the values() method to return values of a dictionary:
for x in [Link]():
print(x)

Example
You can use the keys() method to return the keys of a dictionary:
for x in [Link]():
print(x)
Example
Loop through both keys and values, by using the items() method:
for x, y in [Link]():
print(x, y)

Copy a Dictionary
You cannot copy a dictionary simply by typing dict2 = dict1, because: dict2 will
only be a reference to dict1, and changes made in dict1 will automatically also be
made in dict2.
There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in Dictionary
method copy().
Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the copy() method:
thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",

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"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = [Link]()
print(mydict)

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in function dict().

Example
Make a copy of a dictionary with the dict() function:

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = dict(thisdict)
print(mydict)

Nested Dictionaries
A dictionary can contain dictionaries, this is called nested dictionaries.
Example
Create a dictionary that contain three dictionaries:
myfamily = {
"child1" : {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
},
"child2" : {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
},
"child3" : {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011

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}
}
Or, if you want to add three dictionaries into a new dictionary:
Example
Create three dictionaries, then create one dictionary that will contain the other three
dictionaries:
child1 = {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
}
child2 = {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
}
child3 = {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}

myfamily = {
"child1" : child1,
"child2" : child2,
"child3" : child3
}

Dictionary Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on dictionaries.
Method Description

clear() Removes all the elements from the dictionary

copy() Returns a copy of the dictionary

fromkeys() Returns a dictionary with the specified keys and value

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get() Returns the value of the specified key

items() Returns a list containing a tuple for each key value pair

keys() Returns a list containing the dictionary's keys

pop() Removes the element with the specified key

popitem() Removes the last inserted key-value pair

setdefault() Returns the value of the specified key. If the key does not exist:
insert the key, with the specified value

update() Updates the dictionary with the specified key-value pairs

values() Returns a list of all the values in the dictionary

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Functions
A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.
You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.
A function can return data as a result.

Creating a Function

In Python a function is defined using the def keyword:

Example

def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

Calling a Function

To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:

Example

def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

my_function()

Arguments

Information can be passed into functions as arguments.

Arguments are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. You can
add as many arguments as you want, just separate them with a comma.
The following example has a function with one argument (fname). When the
function is called, we pass along a first name, which is used inside the function to
print the full name:
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Example

def my_function(fname):
print(fname + " Refsnes")

my_function("Emil")
my_function("Tobias")
my_function("Linus")
Arguments are often shortened to args in Python documentations.

Parameters or Arguments?

The terms parameter and argument can be used for the same thing: information
that are passed into a function.
From a function's perspective:
A parameter is the variable listed inside the parentheses in the function definition.
An argument is the value that is sent to the function when it is called.

Number of Arguments
By default, a function must be called with the correct number of arguments.
Meaning that if your function expects 2 arguments, you have to call the function
with 2 arguments, not more, and not less.

Example
This function expects 2 arguments, and gets 2 arguments:

def my_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)
my_function("Emil", "Refsnes")

If you try to call the function with 1 or 3 arguments, you will get an error:
Example
This function expects 2 arguments, but gets only 1:

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def my_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)
my_function("Emil")

Arbitrary Arguments, *args

If you do not know how many arguments that will be passed into your function,
add a * before the parameter name in the function definition.
This way the function will receive a tuple of arguments, and can access the items
accordingly:

Example
If the number of arguments is unknown, add a * before the parameter name:
def my_function(*kids):
print("The youngest child is " + kids[2])

my_function("Emil", "Tobias", "Linus")

Arbitrary Arguments are often shortened to *args in Python documentations.

Keyword Arguments
You can also send arguments with the key = value syntax.
This way the order of the arguments does not matter.
Example
def my_function(child3, child2, child1):
print("The youngest child is " + child3)

my_function(child1 = "Emil", child2 = "Tobias", child3 = "Linus")

The phrase Keyword Arguments are often shortened to kwargs in Python

documentations.

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Arbitrary Keyword Arguments, **kwargs

If you do not know how many keyword arguments that will be passed into your
function, add two asterisk: ** before the parameter name in the function definition.
This way the function will receive a dictionary of arguments, and can access the
items accordingly:

Example
If the number of keyword arguments is unknown, add a double ** before the
parameter name:
def my_function(**kid):
print("His last name is " + kid["lname"])

my_function(fname = "Tobias", lname = "Refsnes")

Arbitrary Kword Arguments are often shortened to **kwargs in Python

documentations.

Default Parameter Value

The following example shows how to use a default parameter value.

If we call the function without argument, it uses the default value:
Example

def my_function(country = "Norway"):

print("I am from " + country)

my_function("Sweden")
my_function("India")
my_function()
my_function("Brazil")

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Passing a List as an Argument

You can send any data types of argument to a function (string, number, list,
dictionary etc.), and it will be treated as the same data type inside the function.
E.g. if you send a List as an argument, it will still be a List when it reaches the
function:
Example

def my_function(food):
for x in food:
print(x)

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

my_function(fruits)

Return Values

To let a function return a value, use the return statement:

Example

def my_function(x):
return 5 * x

print(my_function(3))
print(my_function(5))
print(my_function(9))

The pass Statement

function definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have
a function definition with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an
error.
Example
def myfunction():
pass

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Recursion
Python also accepts function recursion, which means a defined function can call
itself.
Recursion is a common mathematical and programming concept. It means that a
function calls itself. This has the benefit of meaning that you can loop through data
to reach a result.
The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to slip
into writing a function which never terminates, or one that uses excess amounts of
memory or processor power. However, when written correctly recursion can be a
very efficient and mathematically-elegant approach to programming.
In this example, tri_recursion() is a function that we have defined to call itself
("recurse"). We use the k variable as the data, which decrements (-1) every time we
recurse. The recursion ends when the condition is not greater than 0 (i.e. when it is
0).
To a new developer it can take some time to work out how exactly this works, best
way to find out is by testing and modifying it.

Example
Recursion Example

def tri_recursion(k):
if(k > 0):
result = k + tri_recursion(k - 1)
print(result)
else:
result = 0
return result

print("\n\nRecursion Example Results")

tri_recursion(6)

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Lambda

A lambda function is a small anonymous function.

A lambda function can take any number of arguments, but can only have one
expression.

Syntax

lambda arguments : expression

The expression is executed and the result is returned:
Example
Add 10 to argument a, and return the result:

x = lambda a : a + 10
print(x(5))

Lambda functions can take any number of arguments:

Example
Multiply argument a with argument b and return the result:

x = lambda a, b : a * b
print(x(5, 6))

Example
Summarize argument a, b, and c and return the result:

x = lambda a, b, c : a + b + c
print(x(5, 6, 2))

Why Use Lambda Functions?

The power of lambda is better shown when you use them as an anonymous
function inside another function.
Say you have a function definition that takes one argument, and that argument will
be multiplied with an unknown number:
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def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n

Use that function definition to make a function that always doubles the number you
send in:

Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n
mydoubler = myfunc(2)
print(mydoubler(11))

Or, use the same function definition to make a function that always triples the
number you send in:

Example
def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n
mytripler = myfunc(3)
print(mytripler(11))

Or, use the same function definition to make both functions, in the same program:
Example

def myfunc(n):
return lambda a : a * n
mydoubler = myfunc(2)
mytripler = myfunc(3)
print(mydoubler(11))
print(mytripler(11))

Use lambda functions when an anonymous function is required for a short period
of time.

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Arrays
Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be
used instead.

Arrays
Note: This page shows you how to use LISTS as ARRAYS, however, to work
with arrays in Python you will have to import a library, like the NumPy library.
Arrays are used to store multiple values in one single variable:

Example
Create an array containing car names:

cars = ["Ford", "Volvo", "BMW"]

What is an Array?
An array is a special variable, which can hold more than one value at a time.
If you have a list of items (a list of car names, for example), storing the cars in
single variables could look like this:
car1 = "Ford"
car2 = "Volvo"
car3 = "BMW"
However, what if you want to loop through the cars and find a specific one? And
what if you had not 3 cars, but 300?
The solution is an array!
An array can hold many values under a single name, and you can access the values
by referring to an index number.

Access the Elements of an Array

You refer to an array element by referring to the index number.
Example
Get the value of the first array item:
x = cars[0]

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Example
Modify the value of the first array item:
cars[0] = "Toyota"

The Length of an Array

Use the len() method to return the length of an array (the number of elements in an
array).
Example
Return the number of elements in the cars array:

x = len(cars)

Note: The length of an array is always one more than the highest array index.

Looping Array Elements

You can use the for in loop to loop through all the elements of an array.
Example
Print each item in the cars array:
for x in cars:
print(x)

Adding Array Elements

You can use the append() method to add an element to an array.
Example
Add one more element to the cars array:
[Link]("Honda")

Removing Array Elements

You can use the pop() method to remove an element from the array.
Example
Delete the second element of the cars array:
[Link](1)

You can also use the remove() method to remove an element from the array.

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Example
Delete the element that has the value "Volvo":
[Link]("Volvo")

Note: The list's remove() method only removes the first occurrence of the specified
value.

Array Methods
Python has a set of built-in methods that you can use on lists/arrays.
Method Description

append() Adds an element at the end of the list

clear() Removes all the elements from the list

copy() Returns a copy of the list

count() Returns the number of elements with the specified value

extend() Add the elements of a list (or any iterable), to the end of the current
list

index() Returns the index of the first element with the specified value

insert() Adds an element at the specified position

pop() Removes the element at the specified position

remove() Removes the first item with the specified value

reverse() Reverses the order of the list

sort() Sorts the list

Note: Python does not have built-in support for Arrays, but Python Lists can be
used instead.

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Classes/Objects

Python is an object oriented programming language.

Almost everything in Python is an object, with its properties and methods.
A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.

Create a Class
To create a class, use the keyword class:
Example
Create a class named MyClass, with a property named x:

class MyClass:
x=5

Create Object
Now we can use the class named MyClass to create objects:
Example
Create an object named p1, and print the value of x:

p1 = MyClass()
print(p1.x)

The __init__() Function

The examples above are classes and objects in their simplest form, and are not
really useful in real life applications.
To understand the meaning of classes we have to understand the built-in __init__()
function.
All classes have a function called __init__(), which is always executed when the
class is being initiated.
Use the __init__() function to assign values to object properties, or other
operations that are necessary to do when the object is being created:
Example

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Create a class named Person, use the __init__() function to assign values for name
and age:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
[Link] = name
[Link] = age

p1 = Person("John", 36)
print([Link])
print([Link])

Note: The __init__() function is called automatically every time the class is being
used to create a new object.

Object Methods
Objects can also contain methods. Methods in objects are functions that belong to
the object.
Let us create a method in the Person class:
Example
Insert a function that prints a greeting, and execute it on the p1 object:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
[Link] = name
[Link] = age
def myfunc(self):
print("Hello my name is " + [Link])

p1 = Person("John", 36)
[Link]()

Note: The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class, and is
used to access variables that belong to the class.

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The self Parameter

The self parameter is a reference to the current instance of the class, and is used to
access variables that belongs to the class.
It does not have to be named self , you can call it whatever you like, but it has to be
the first parameter of any function in the class:
Example
Use the words mysillyobject and abc instead of self:

class Person:
def __init__(mysillyobject, name, age):
[Link] = name
[Link] = age
def myfunc(abc):
print("Hello my name is " + [Link])

p1 = Person("John", 36)
[Link]()

Modify Object Properties

You can modify properties on objects like this:
Example
Set the age of p1 to 40:
[Link] = 40

Delete Object Properties

You can delete properties on objects by using the del keyword:
Example
Delete the age property from the p1 object:
del [Link]

Delete Objects
You can delete objects by using the del keyword:
Example

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Delete the p1 object:

del p1

The pass Statement

class definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have
a class definition with no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an
error.
Example

class Person:
pass

Inheritance
Inheritance allows us to define a class that inherits all the methods and properties
from another class.
Parent class is the class being inherited from, also called base class.
Child class is the class that inherits from another class, also called derived class.

Create a Parent Class

Any class can be a parent class, so the syntax is the same as creating any other
class:
Example

Create a class named Person, with firstname and lastname properties, and
a printname method:

class Person:
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
[Link] = fname
[Link] = lname

def printname(self):
print([Link], [Link])

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#Use the Person class to create an object, and then execute the printname method:

x = Person("John", "Doe")
[Link]()

Create a Child Class

To create a class that inherits the functionality from another class, send the parent
class as a parameter when creating the child class:
Example
Create a class named Student, which will inherit the properties and methods from
the Person class:
class Student(Person):
pass
Note: Use the pass keyword when you do not want to add any other properties or
methods to the class.
Now the Student class has the same properties and methods as the Person class.
Example
Use the Student class to create an object, and then execute the printname method:
x = Student("Mike", "Olsen")
[Link]()

Add the __init__() Function

So far we have created a child class that inherits the properties and methods from
its parent.
We want to add the __init__() function to the child class (instead of
the pass keyword).
Note: The __init__() function is called automatically every time the class is being
used to create a new object.
Example
Add the __init__() function to the Student class:

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class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
#add properties etc.
When you add the __init__() function, the child class will no longer inherit the
parent's __init__() function.
Note: The child's __init__() function overrides the inheritance of the
parent's __init__() function.
To keep the inheritance of the parent's __init__() function, add a call to the
parent's __init__() function:
Example
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
Person.__init__(self, fname, lname)

Now we have successfully added the __init__() function, and kept the inheritance
of the parent class, and we are ready to add functionality in the __init__() function.

Use the super() Function

Python also has a super() function that will make the child class inherit all the
methods and properties from its parent:
Example
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):
super().__init__(fname, lname)

By using the super() function, you do not have to use the name of the parent
element, it will automatically inherit the methods and properties from its parent.

Add Properties
Example
Add a property called graduationyear to the Student class:
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname):

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super().__init__(fname, lname)
[Link] = 2019

In the example below, the year 2019 should be a variable, and passed into
the Student class when creating student objects. To do so, add another parameter in
the __init__() function:
Example
Add a year parameter, and pass the correct year when creating objects:
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname, year):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
[Link] = year

x = Student("Mike", "Olsen", 2019)

Add Methods
Example
Add a method called welcome to the Student class:
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, fname, lname, year):
super().__init__(fname, lname)
[Link] = year

def welcome(self):
print("Welcome", [Link], [Link], "to the class of",
[Link])

If you add a method in the child class with the same name as a function in the
parent class, the inheritance of the parent method will be overridden.

Iterators
An iterator is an object that contains a countable number of values.
An iterator is an object that can be iterated upon, meaning that you can traverse
through all the values.

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Technically, in Python, an iterator is an object which implements the iterator

protocol, which consist of the methods __iter__() and __next__().

Iterator vs Iterable
Lists, tuples, dictionaries, and sets are all iterable objects. They are
iterable containers which you can get an iterator from.
All these objects have a iter() method which is used to get an iterator:
Example
Return an iterator from a tuple, and print each value:
mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")
myit = iter(mytuple)

print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))

Even strings are iterable objects, and can return an iterator:

Example
Strings are also iterable objects, containing a sequence of characters:
mystr = "banana"
myit = iter(mystr)

print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))
print(next(myit))

Looping Through an Iterator

We can also use a for loop to iterate through an iterable object:
Example
Iterate the values of a tuple:

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mytuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for x in mytuple:
print(x)

Example
Iterate the characters of a string:
mystr = "banana"

for x in mystr:
print(x)

The for loop actually creates an iterator object and executes the next() method for
each loop.

Create an Iterator
To create an object/class as an iterator you have to implement the
methods __iter__() and __next__() to your object.
As you have learned in the Python Classes/Objects chapter, all classes have a
function called __init__(), which allows you to do some initializing when the
object is being created.
The __iter__() method acts similar, you can do operations (initializing etc.), but
must always return the iterator object itself.
The __next__() method also allows you to do operations, and must return the next
item in the sequence.

Example
Create an iterator that returns numbers, starting with 1, and each sequence will
increase by one (returning 1,2,3,4,5 etc.):

class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1

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return self

def __next__(self):
x = self.a
self.a += 1
return x

myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)

print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))
print(next(myiter))

StopIteration
The example above would continue forever if you had enough next() statements, or
if it was used in a for loop.
To prevent the iteration to go on forever, we can use the StopIteration statement.
In the __next__() method, we can add a terminating condition to raise an error if
the iteration is done a specified number of times:
Example
Stop after 20 iterations:

class MyNumbers:
def __iter__(self):
self.a = 1
return self

def __next__(self):
if self.a <= 20:
x = self.a
self.a += 1

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return x
else:
raise StopIteration

myclass = MyNumbers()
myiter = iter(myclass)

for x in myiter:
print(x)

Python Scope
A variable is only available from inside the region it is created. This is
called scope.

Local Scope
A variable created inside a function belongs to the local scope of that function, and
can only be used inside that function.
Example
A variable created inside a function is available inside that function:
def myfunc():
x = 300
print(x)

myfunc()

Function Inside Function

As explained in the example above, the variable x is not available outside the
function, but it is available for any function inside the function:
Example
The local variable can be accessed from a function within the function:
def myfunc():
x = 300
def myinnerfunc():
print(x)

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myinnerfunc()

myfunc()

Global Scope
A variable created in the main body of the Python code is a global variable and
belongs to the global scope.
Global variables are available from within any scope, global and local.
Example
A variable created outside of a function is global and can be used by anyone:
x = 300

def myfunc():
print(x)

myfunc()

print(x)

Naming Variables
If you operate with the same variable name inside and outside of a function,
Python will treat them as two separate variables, one available in the global scope
(outside the function) and one available in the local scope (inside the function):
Example
The function will print the local x, and then the code will print the global x:
x = 300

def myfunc():
x = 200
print(x)

myfunc()

print(x)

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Global Keyword
If you need to create a global variable, but are stuck in the local scope, you can use
the global keyword.
The global keyword makes the variable global.
Example
If you use the global keyword, the variable belongs to the global scope:
def myfunc():
global x
x = 300

myfunc()

print(x)

Also, use the global keyword if you want to make a change to a global variable
inside a function.
Example
To change the value of a global variable inside a function, refer to the variable by
using the global keyword:

x = 300

def myfunc():
global x
x = 200

myfunc()

print(x)

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Modules
What is a Module?
Consider a module to be the same as a code library.
A file containing a set of functions you want to include in your application.

Create a Module
To create a module just save the code you want in a file with the file extension .py:
Example
Save this code in a file named [Link]
def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)
Use a Module
Now we can use the module we just created, by using the import statement:
Example
Import the module named mymodule, and call the greeting function:
import mymodule

[Link]("Jonathan")

Note: When using a function from a module, use the

syntax: module_name.function_name.

Variables in Module
The module can contain functions, as already described, but also variables of all
types (arrays, dictionaries, objects etc):
Example
Save this code in the file [Link]
person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}
Example

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Import the module named mymodule, and access the person1 dictionary:
import mymodule

a = mymodule.person1["age"]
print(a)

Naming a Module
You can name the module file whatever you like, but it must have the file
extension .py
Re-naming a Module
You can create an alias when you import a module, by using the as keyword:
Example
Create an alias for mymodule called mx:
import mymodule as mx

a = mx.person1["age"]
print(a)

Built-in Modules
There are several built-in modules in Python, which you can import whenever you
like.
Example
Import and use the platform module:
import platform

x = [Link]()
print(x)

Using the dir() Function

There is a built-in function to list all the function names (or variable names) in a
module. The dir() function:
Example
List all the defined names belonging to the platform module:

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import platform

x = dir(platform)
print(x)

Note: The dir() function can be used on all modules, also the ones you create
yourself.

Import From Module

You can choose to import only parts from a module, by using the from keyword.
Example
The module named mymodule has one function and one dictionary:
def greeting(name):
print("Hello, " + name)

person1 = {
"name": "John",
"age": 36,
"country": "Norway"
}

Example
Import only the person1 dictionary from the module:
from mymodule import person1

print (person1["age"])

Note: When importing using the from keyword, do not use the module name when
referring to elements in the module.
Example: person1["age"], not mymodule.person1["age"]

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File Handling

File Open
File handling is an important part of any web application.
Python has several functions for creating, reading, updating, and deleting files.

File Handling
The key function for working with files in Python is the open() function.
The open() function takes two parameters; filename, and mode.
There are four different methods (modes) for opening a file:
"r" - Read - Default value. Opens a file for reading, error if the file does not exist
"a" - Append - Opens a file for appending, creates the file if it does not exist
"w" - Write - Opens a file for writing, creates the file if it does not exist
"x" - Create - Creates the specified file, returns an error if the file exists
In addition you can specify if the file should be handled as binary or text mode
"t" - Text - Default value. Text mode
"b" - Binary - Binary mode (e.g. images)

Syntax
To open a file for reading it is enough to specify the name of the file:
f = open("[Link]")
The code above is the same as:
f = open("[Link]", "rt")
Because "r" for read, and "t" for text are the default values, you do not need to
specify them.
Note: Make sure the file exists, or else you will get an error.

Python File Open

Open a File on the Server

Assume we have the following file, located in the same folder as Python:
[Link]

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Hello! Welcome to [Link]

This file is for testing purposes.
Good Luck!

To open the file, use the built-in open() function.

The open() function returns a file object, which has a read() method for reading the
content of the file:
Example

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

If the file is located in a different location, you will have to specify the file path,
like this:
Example

Open a file on a different location:

f = open("D:\\myfiles\[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

Read Only Parts of the File

By default the read() method returns the whole text, but you can also specify how
many characters you want to return:
Example
Return the 5 first characters of the file:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link](5))

Read Lines
You can return one line by using the readline() method:
Example

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Read one line of the file:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

By calling readline() two times, you can read the two first lines:

Example
Read two lines of the file:
f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())
print([Link]())

By looping through the lines of the file, you can read the whole file, line by line:
Example
Loop through the file line by line:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
for x in f:
print(x)

Close Files
It is a good practice to always close the file when you are done with it.
Example
Close the file when you are finish with it:
f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())
[Link]()

Note: You should always close your files, in some cases, due to buffering, changes
made to a file may not show until you close the file.

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File Write

Write to an Existing File

To write to an existing file, you must add a parameter to the open() function:
"a" - Append - will append to the end of the file
"w" - Write - will overwrite any existing content
Example
Open the file "[Link]" and append content to the file:
f = open("[Link]", "a")
[Link]("Now the file has more content!")
[Link]()

#open and read the file after the appending:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

Example
Open the file "[Link]" and overwrite the content:
f = open("[Link]", "w")
[Link]("Woops! I have deleted the content!")
[Link]()

#open and read the file after the appending:

f = open("[Link]", "r")
print([Link]())

Note: the "w" method will overwrite the entire file.

Create a New File

To create a new file in Python, use the open() method, with one of the following
parameters:
"x" - Create - will create a file, returns an error if the file exist
"a" - Append - will create a file if the specified file does not exist
"w" - Write - will create a file if the specified file does not exist

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Example
Create a file called "[Link]":
f = open("[Link]", "x")
Result: a new empty file is created!
Example
Create a new file if it does not exist:
f = open("[Link]", "w")

Delete a File
To delete a file, you must import the OS module, and run its [Link]() function:
Example
Remove the file "[Link]":
import os
[Link]("[Link]")

Check if File exist:

To avoid getting an error, you might want to check if the file exists before you try
to delete it:
Example
Check if file exists, then delete it:
import os
if [Link]("[Link]"):
[Link]("[Link]")
else:
print("The file does not exist")

Delete Folder
To delete an entire folder, use the [Link]() method:
Example
Remove the folder "myfolder":
import os
[Link]("myfolder")
Note: You can only remove empty folders.

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