QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
Climate
Climate refers to the average weather conditions of a place for long period of time usually
30 years. The elements of climate are:
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Air pressure
• Wind direction
• Wind speed
• Cloud cover
• Rainfall
Factors affecting temperature of Pakistan
1. Latitudinal Effect.
Places near the equator are hot as they receive direct sunlight. As a result, Southern
Pakistan is hotter as compared to the northern Pakistan that receive slanting rays of the sun.
2. Continental Effect and Maritime influence.
Places away from the sea experience continental climate.
Annual range of temperature is high as they are away from the sea. They experience hot
summers and cool/cold winters.
Maritime influence is the influence of the sea on temperature. The sea has a moderating
effect on the temperature and as a result the coastal areas experience mild temperatures
throughout the year.
3. Altitude and Temperature.
Temperature decreases with increase in altitude. Air is least dense at high altitude because
less solar radiation is absorbed at that level. Since there is less air to absorb heat at higher
altitude, there is an average drop of 6.5 C for each 1000m increase in altitude.
4. Cloud cover and Temperature.
Cloud cover at daytime reduces the amount of incoming solar radiation by reflecting it back
into space and making a drop in temperature. At night, the cloud cover traps the outgoing
heat. The high daily (diurnal) range of temperature in the deserts is due to cloudless sky.
Since there are no clouds at daytime, there is direct sunlight being absorbed by the land
QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
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QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
making it hot. At night since there are no clouds, heat is radiated back in the atmosphere quickly,
causing the temperature to drop at night.
Climatic Zones of Pakistan.
Highland Climate
• This type of climate is experienced in the Northern, North-Western and Western
mountains.
• Winters are long, cold and snowy. The temperatures drop below freezing point in
the Northern Mountains while in the Western Mountains, the temperatures remain
cool.
• The summers are short, mild and pleasant with more monsoon rainfall in the
Northern Mountains while the Western mountains experience warm dry summers
with more rainfall in the winter months.
• There is more rainfall in the Northern Mountains as compared to the Western
Mountains.
• Gilgit and Chitral experience very less rainfall and are known as Rain shadow
areas.
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QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
Effect of highland climate on people and economy
• Long cold snowy winters makes life difficult for the people living in the Northern
areas. Life is hard as there is scarcity of resources and basic facilities such as supply
of electricity, natural gas, clean drinking water etc.
• Trade and tourism are limited in the winter months due to roads being blocked by
snowfall.
• People stay indoors and keep stockpile of food and other emergency items as roads get
blocked in the winter months.
• There is scarcity of freshwater supply because the surface freezes. • Blizzards and
snowstorms are common that reduce visibility in the areas, increasing the risk of
accidents.
• People with their livestock practice transhumance, movement from the northern areas
to the plains in the winter months and returning back to the mountains in the summer
months.
• Farming is limited in the summer months when rice, maize and other fruits are grown,
especially on the terraced slopes.
• Low temperatures may lead to health issues such as respiratory issues and seasonal
cold, flu and fever.
• Tourism becomes challenging in the winter month yet, at the same time, it contributes
significantly to local business such as adventure tourism (e.g., trekking, mountaineering),
and the sale of local crafts and products.
Lowland Climate
• The Lowland climate includes all of the Indus Plain except the coastal
areas.
• It has an arid and extreme climate hot summers, cool winters and
monsoon rainfall.
• Thunderstorms are common in the northern parts of the Indus Plain while
the southern parts of the Indus Plain experience dry spells.
Coastal Climate
• Includes the coastal strip of Pakistan comprising of Makran Coast and
Sindh Coast.
• Experiences maritime climate and is dominated by sea breezes all year. •
QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
The maritime climate keeps the daily range of temperature low with warm/hot
summers and mild winters.
• Quetta winds bring short spells of cold wave during the winter season while
hot winds from the Thar desert blow towards these areas cause the
temperature to rise, bringing a short spell of heat wave in the coastal areas. •
High humidity and strong winds dominate the area.
• Rainfall is scanty, Sindh coast receives rainfall mostly from the monsoons
while Makran coast gets its rainfall from the Western depressions.
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Arid climate
• The areas experiencing arid climate includes the South-eastern desert and the South
western part of Balochistan.
• Hot dusty winds prevail continuously from May to September.
• The region is hot and dry and rainfall is scanty.
• Dust storms and dryness are the main climatic features.
• Due to the cloudless skies, the deserts experience high diurnal (daily) range of, at
daytime the temperature gets very hot while the nights are mild and temperature
pleasant.
Challenges of living in Arid climate
• Hot dry climate in the desert limits the growth of crops and availability of food and
other resources.
• Scarcity of water is another challenge; people have to walk long distances to get water
for their basic use.
• Frequent sandstorms can disrupt daily life, damage property, and affect health. These
storms can reduce visibility and make outdoor activities dangerous.
• Prolonged exposure to extreme heat can lead to health issues such as heatstroke and
dehydration. They wear thick clothes to avoid direct exposure to heat and prevent the
skin from harmful UV rays, reducing the risk of skin damage and sunburn.
• The remote location of the deserts make access to essential services like healthcare,
education, and transportation challenging and expensive.
• Variations in day and night temperature disturb the cropping pattern, limiting output.
QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
Cause of variations in temperature in the different parts of Pakistan
Large spread of latitudes from 24 N to 37 N and diversity of relief ranging from the very high
mountains in the north to low lying coastal areas in the south.
The upper and lower Indus Plain heat up during the summer season e.g. Jacobabad, located in the
lower Indus Plain is known as the ‘thermal pole’ of the sub-continent the maximum temperature
reaches 53 C in June.
Rainfall
Sources of rainfall are:
• The Monsoons (July to September)
• The Western Depressions (December to March)
• Convectional currents / Thunder storms (April-May and October-November) •
Relief Rainfall (mountain rainfall)
• Cyclones.
The Monsoon Winds
• The word monsoon means season/ seasonal winds.
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• Pakistan receives the tail end of the monsoon winds which enter the country after
crossing India.
• These winds come from east side ‘Bay of Bengal’ and heavy rain occur in northern
areas of Pakistan. The amount of rain decreases towards south and because most
the of moisture is robbed due long journey.
• This system is called Primary Monsoon System.
• When monsoon winds come from ‘Arabian Sea’ and heavy rain occur in Karachi
and its adjacent areas by this source then this system is called Secondary
Monsoon System.
• The north east monsoons occur in winters when the land is cool and the oceans
are warmer than land. The cold air over the land sinks and a high pressure is
created over the land. The air moves from high pressure to low pressure areas
making winds blow from land to sea. These winds are mostly dry and bring little
rainfall.
QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
Q1. Describe the path/ route of the main monsoon across Pakistan.
Ans: The monsoon winds originate from Bay of Bengal. The winds cross Bangladesh and India
and enters Pakistan from the Northern Mountains. These winds are then dispersed to the
western parts of the country and to Punjab. By the time they reach Sindh, they are robbed of
their moisture and become dry, bringing little rainfall.
Q2. Explain why the monsoons bring heavy rainfall during the summer
months. • Strong heating of land.
• Low pressure created.
• Rising air (warm).
• High pressure created over Bay of Bengal / Arabian Sea.
• Winds blow from high pressure to low pressure and bring moisture.
• Condensation takes place.
• Rain occurs.
During monsoons, the temperature is high in Central Pakistan. This causes hot air to rise and
form a low-pressure zone. At the same time, oceans and seas have a lower temperature
resulting in a high pressure over the seas due to water absorbing and discharging heat slowly as
compared to land. This leads to the movement of the moisture laden winds from sea to land,
bringing
heavy rainfall in the Indus Plain in July and August.
Q3. Enlist the advantages and disadvantages of summer rainfall in Pakistan.
ADVANTAGES
• Rain provides water to rivers and reservoirs that can be used for irrigation. •
Settles the dust and makes the environment clean and fresh.
• Gives relief from the summer heat and makes the weather pleasant.
• Supplies water for hydroelectricity.
• Recharges groundwater providing water for domestic and industrial uses.
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DISADVANTAGES
• Heavy rainfall erodes top soil leading to land degradation and limited crop production.
QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
• Heavy and intense rainfall can lead to flash floods causing damage to infrastructure, homes
and agricultural land.
• Increased water levels and puddles of water formed on land encourage water borne diseases
such as Dengue, Malaria etc.
• Flooded roads and damages roads and bridges restrict movement of people and goods,
leading to economic loss.
• Heavy rainfall damages certain crops such as cotton and affect crop production.
The Western Depressions
The western depression originates in the Mediterranean Sea, travel across Afghanistan and
reach the western areas of Pakistan. Quetta receives most of its rainfall during the winter
season.
ADVANTAGES
• Rain provides water to rivers and reservoirs that can be used for irrigation. •
Supplies water for hydroelectricity.
• Recharges groundwater providing water for domestic and industrial uses. •
Provides water for barani crops and fruit trees.
• Winter rainfall come in light showers which is more beneficial for crops, it is absorbed by
the soil and prevents soil erosion.
• Snowfall in the Northern areas attract tourism.
DISADVANTAGES
• Snowfall in the Northern areas limit economic activity and farming gets difficult. •
Damage to environment – landslides, mudslides, floods etc.
• Damage to roads – blockage, slippery etc increasing risk of accidents.
• Winter rainfall further lowers the temperature, increasing risk of cold, flu, asthmatic/ lung
problems.
• Snowfall in the Northern mountains create problems for livestock farmers and they practice
Transhumance, movement of livestock in the plain areas during winter months and
returning back to the mountains in the summer months.
QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
Convectional Currents / Thunder storms
At the start of summer, hot air rises up which also contains a high moisture content. When
it reaches the higher layers of the atmosphere, condensation takes place. This causes
rainfall, often as thunderstorms. Strong winds accompanying the storms may pick up dust
as well.
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• Only the northern and north-western areas of Pakistan receive rainfall from this
source.
• Southern Pakistan is deprived of convectional rainfall due to a temperature inversion
layer.
• Temperature Inversion Layer (On clear winter nights the temperature increases
with the altitude) does not allow condensation to take place at the height of 1600 m
due Criss-Cross system of winds. As a result, warm air descends and no rainfall
occurs. That is why Karachi and adjoining areas do not receive rainfall by this
source.
Diagram
Relief Rainfall
Relief rainfall is related to the height of land. It occurs where moist unstable air moves up
a mountain or scarp edge and it is chilled. This chilling causes heavy condensation and
precipitation on the windward side. The leeward slopes remain dry, getting little rainfall
and is known as rain shadow area.
QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
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Tropical Cyclone
When the wind is spirally moving in towards the low pressure called cyclone.
Cyclones in Pakistan
In Pakistan, cyclones originate in the Arabian Sea, gradually moving towards the land.
Sometimes they reach the coast and cause damage with violent winds, high ocean waves and
cyclone surge.
Tropical cyclones occur either from May to June or September and October.
Q1. What effects do these storms have on the economy and lives of the people who live in
the coastal area?
• Strong and violent winds
• Floods…… damaging crops and livestock, homes and property and lives of the people. •
Crops are destroyed, causing food shortage and famine.
• Destroy factories, bridges and bridges.
• Interrupt communication. And interrupt services, electricity and water supplies. Disrupts
fishing.
• Loss of property.
• Danger of diseases
• Poverty, loss of income.
Q2. Which area is affected by tropical cyclones?
• Sindh coast
• Makran coast
QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
Q3. Describe the physical effects of tropical cyclones in this area.
• Blowing of strong winds
• Heavy rainfall
• Floods
• Thunder and lightning.
• Swaying of trees.
Floods
The excessive water in rivers which over flow the banks.
Flash Flood
A flash flood is a rapid and intense flood event that occurs within minutes to hours of heavy
rainfall or other events such as dam failures or rapid snow melt. These are the sudden floods
which disappears quickly.
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Causes of Flood
1. Natural
• Melting of snow.
• Heavy rain by monsoon.
2. Human
• Cutting of the trees on the foothills increases surface run-off.
• Weak embankments
• less storing capacity of water in dams.
• Deforestation cause soil erosion which further leads to siltation in dams.
Measures to Reduce Floods
• Planting trees on the foothills to check the flow of running water and reduce
surface run off.
QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
• Enlarging the river channel so that it can be hold more water.
• Raising embankments on either side of the river to increase its water holding
capacity.
• Building reservoirs on the river to store water and control peak discharge. •
Preventing building in areas where flooding is most likely.
• Publicizing flood warnings through radio, television and
newspapers.
• Providing necessary facilities for rehabilitation in flooded areas.
ADVANTAGES
• Floods return nutrients to the land.
• Floods refresh the streams.
• Floods spread a layer of alluvium which increases the fertility of the land. •
Store maximum water in dams.
• Promotes inland fishing industry.
Effects of Flood / Problems
• Destruction of crops and loss of food supply. Farmers are unable to grow crops till the
water is all drained out, leading to famine.
• Mud houses and huts could be severely damaged.
• Danger of water borne diseases, such as Dengue, Malaria, Cholera.
• Interrupt communication and transport links, such as roads, railways and bridges are
damaged, affecting the movement of people.
• Kill livestock.
• Little to no supply of raw material to industries, manufacturing slows down, leading to
economic crisis.
• Interrupts services, utilities and electricity supplies. This increases the cost for
emergency relief funds and repair of damaged infrastructure.
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• Large-scale flooding often forces people to evacuate their homes, leading to temporary
or long-term displacement. This requires rehabilitation centres which burdens the
economy.
Drought
Extreme dryness due to lack of rain. It is found in deserts areas like Cholistan and
Tharparkar.
Types of Droughts
Seasonal Drought
Occurs in areas with limited rainy days and prolonged dry seasons.
Example: Southern Punjab.
Permanent Drought
Occurs in areas with scanty rainfall where crop cultivation is not possible without
irrigation.
Example: Cholistan desert.
Invisible Drought
Is the result of water deficiency that reduces crop yields but is not severe enough to
destroy the crops.
Unpredictable Drought
Is the result of very low rainfall and is more common in humid areas.
Causes of Drought
Natural Factors
• Unreliable monsoon.
• Dry and hot dusty winds can reduce the moisture content.
• Global warming constantly changing the temperature and weather patterns.
Human Factors
• Deforestation increases soil erosion and reduce rainfall.
• Unfair distribution of water between Punjab and Sindh.
• Over grazing of land by goat and sheep.
• Global Warming.
• Inefficient irrigation systems and inadequate water management practices lead to water
wastage and reduced availability for agriculture and other uses.
QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
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Effects of Drought on the Physical Environment
• Prolonged drought leads to desertification which is the process of turning the land into a
desert.
• Exposed soil leading to soil erosion, dust storms, extension of desert areas, rise in
temperature, loss of vegetation and extinction of species.
• Drying up of rivers and lakes which affects fisheries and other aquatic life. • Algae grows in
shallow water bodies, making water unsafe for drinking. • Drop in water table, leading to less
water available to plants and humans. • The loss of vegetation and drying of water sources
lead to the destruction of habitats for many species, impacting biodiversity.
Effects of Drought on the Human Environment
• Insufficient water affects crop growth, leading to crop failure. This can result in food
shortages, increased food prices and widespread famine.
• Lack of water and feed can lead to malnutrition and health issues in livestock, impacting
meat and dairy production.
• People may be forced to move from drought-affected areas better leading to internal
displacement and increased pressure on urban areas.
• Industries that rely on water inputs and crops, such as textiles or manufacturing, may
experience reduced output which will result in less exports and increased imports. • Lower
river flows will decrease the capacity for hydropower generation, affecting energy supply,
affecting economic activities.
Strategies to reduce negative impacts of drought
• Educate the public about the importance of water conservation and promote water-saving
practices.
• Water storage schemes such as construction of dams and reservoirs for irrigating crops. •
Adopt modern irrigation techniques such as drip and sprinkler systems that minimize water
wastage by supplying water only to the roots of the crop.
• Plant drought-resistant crop varieties that require less water and can survive dry conditions.
• Use of new technology such as desalination of sea water, reclaiming waste water and
turning into clean water.
• Practice Rainwater harvesting which is collecting and storing rainwater from roofs and
other surfaces for use during dry periods.
• Lining of canals to avoid water seepage causing waterlogging. The waterlogged areas are
unfit for farming.
• Groundwater contamination should be prevented as far as possible by controlling the
seepage of toxic waste into the ground.
• Regulating outdoor water use, such as the use of sprinklers or buckets on outdoor plants
and filling pools etc.
• Inducing rainfall through cloud seeding.
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Graph Reading Skills
• Line graph is used for temperature.
• Bar graph is used for rainfall.
• Vertical axis on the left represents temperature while the axis on the right represents
rainfall.
• Horizontal axis represents the months.
Description of graph
• State the maximum and minimum temperature/ rainfall, mentioning the month and amount.
• Describe the general pattern of the graph: rapid or gradual increase and decrease, •
Constant or steady or fluctuating pattern
• Mention months withs no rainfall/ discuss any noticeable pattern
• Include some statistics in the answer which should be accurate
• DO NOT mention monthly statistics, do not give reasons to the pattern shown on the graph
and avoid any irrelevant information which is not displayed on the graph.
QURATULAIN TEACHER O LEVEL PAKISTAN STUDIES (2059/0448)
Q1. Study the graph, a bar chart showing precipitation for Peshawar.
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Describe the precipitation in the months from June to September.
Increases July – August.
Decreases in September.
Maximum in August 68 mm.
Minimum in June 8 mm.
Ranges from 8 mm to 68 mm.
EXAMPLES
• In August 2021, Karachi experienced heavy monsoons, resulting in urban
flooding where one million acres of crops like cotton, sugarcane, tomatoes were
destroyed and thousands of people were forced into relief camps.
• In July and August 2024, floods during the monsoon season caused a lot of
damage to life and property of the people of Punjab, KPK and Sindh. Over 108
people died and 216 were injured, more than 550 houses were destroyed, and
infrastructure such as roads and bridges, especially in KP and Kashmir, was
severely damaged.
• Severe dry spells in Sindh and Balochistan in 2021 have led to water shortages,
crop failures and malnutrition among local people.
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