Introduction to Soil Science – I (SAES-5801)

SOIL GENESIS / SOIL FORMATION

It is mode of origin of soil. Soil formation means both the production of parent material and soil
profile development. The process of weathering and soil profile development occur
simultaneously.
The formation of soil happens over a very long period of time. It may take thousands of
years. Soil is formed as results of weathering of rocks and minerals. The surface rocks break down
into smaller pieces through a process of weathering and is then mixed with organic matter. Over
time this creates a thin layer of soil and then lower plants grow and soil development is enhanced.
Later on higher plants grow and attract animals. When the plants and animals die, their bodies
decay/decompose. Decaying matter makes the soil thick and rich. This continues until soil is fully
developed.
Factors of Soil Formation
1. Parent material
Parent material is the unconsolidated initial material from which soils develop. The nature of
parent material greatly influences soil characteristic. Parent material influence soil formation by
its following properties/characteristics:
a. rate of weathering
b. the nutrients
c. the particle size
For example sandstones give rise to sandy and shale’s to clayey soils. The less the soil developed
the grater will be the effect of parent material on the soil properties.
Parent material also influences the quantity and type of clay minerals present in soil profile. Soil
developed from potassium rich parent material may have illite as the dominant clay mineral.
2. Climate
Climate is the average weather conditions at a particular place over a period of time as determined
by temperature, precipitation, wind velocity and other morphological factors.
Climate is the dominant factor of soil formation because of the effects of:
 temperature
 rainfall
 wind

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These sub-factors affect the rate of chemical, physical and biological processes that are responsible
of soil development. The biochemical changes are sensitive to temperature. These changes are
favored by temperature range of 20-30oC. Temperature also influences the organic matter content
of the soil. Decomposition of organic matter is more at higher temperatures. That is why organic
matter is generally low in soils of dry regions like Pakistan.
Moisture is another important factor in soil formation. Rainfall is the major source of moisture. In
areas receiving low rainfall, there is shallow accumulation of carbonates in the soil, in humid areas,
acid soils are developed under conditions of intense weathering and leaching. Erosion caused by
water may remove upper fertile portion of soils and may deposit it at some other places. A soil is
said to be developed when it has detectable layers (horizons), such as accumulated clays, organic
colloids, or soluble salts that have been moved by water.
Wind can affect soil development through erosion as it may decrease the depth of soil
developed and may damage the vegetation. In sandy areas like Cholistan the destructive effects of
winds are more pronounced.
Climate also influences the natural vegetation. In humid regions, high rainfall provides an
environment favorable for the growth of trees. In contrast, grasslands are dominant with native
vegetation in semi arid regions and shrubs of various kinds in arid areas. In these areas the
vegetation is not dense enough to protect soil from wind and water erosion.
3. Living organisms
The activities of living plants, animals and the decomposition of their wastes and residues have
marked influence on soil development. Soil organisms play a major role in soil profile
differentiation through
 Organic matter accumulation
 Profile mixing
 Nutrient cycling
 Soil structure stability
Burrowing animals such as moles, earthworms, ants, and termites are highly important when they
exist in large numbers. Soils having large numbers of these animals have fewer but deeper horizons
because of the constant mixing within the soil profile. Microorganisms present in the soil attack
plant and animal residues producing organic materials. These microorganisms along with an

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abundance of plant roots help to bind soil particles into stable aggregates. Similarly, certain
microorganisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen into compounds useable by plants.
4. Topography
Topography is the difference in elevation or slope between the uplands and low lands of a valley
or it is the earth’s surface contour.
Topography of a land can hasten or delay the work of climatic forces. In smooth and flat surfaces
excess water is removed less rapidly than in areas of steep slopes. Soils having steep slopes
encourage natural erosion of the soil surface which reduces the possibilities of the development of
a deep soil. On the other hand, if water remains available for part or all of the year on gentle slopes
there will be more vegetation and organic matter accumulation resulting in the development of a
deep soil profile.
Topography also determines the type and amount of vegetation. e.g. in northern hemisphere, higher
plants and more vegetation is present on north facing slopes but scarce and small shrubs are present
on the south facing slopes.
5. Time
The time required for a soil to develop the distinct layers (horizons) depends upon all other factors
of soil formation (climate, nature of parent material, living organisms and topography). Horizons
tend to develop more rapidly under warm, humid and forested conditions where there is enough
water to move clay, humus and other colloids downward. Under ideal conditions, recognizable
soil profile may develop within 200 years, under less favorable conditions, the time may extend to
several thousand years.
Basic Processes of Soil Formation
During soil formation, the unconsolidated weathered material under goes many changes. These
changes are brought about by variations in the four basic soil forming processes. These four basic
processes often referred as soil forming or Pedogenic processes. They are responsible of soil
formation under all kind of environments. These processes are
1. Addition
Inputs of materials to the developing soil profile from outside sources are considered additions.
For example, fallen plant leaves, twigs, dust, animal dung, salts or silica dissolved in groundwater
and deposited near or at the soil surface when rising water evaporates.

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2. Losses
Materials are lost from soil profile by leaching to groundwater, erosion of surface material, or other
forms of removal. Leaching causes the loss of water and dissolved substances such as salts or
silica, weathered from parent materials. Grazing of animals or harvest by people can remove large
amounts of both organic matter and nutrient element.
3. Transformation
It involves the physical or chemical modification of soil constituents i.e some materials are broken
down and others are synthesized. For example, weathering of primary minerals results in
disintegration and alteration of various kinds of silicate clays. As primary minerals decompose,
the decomposition products recombine to form new minerals which include additional type of
silicate clays and hydroxides of iron and aluminum. The decomposition of organic residues gives
rise to organic acids, humus and other products
4. Translocation
It involves the movement of inorganic and organic material laterally within a horizon or vertically
from one horizon up or down to another. Water, either percolating down with gravity or rising up
by capillary action is the most common translocation agent. The material moved within the profile
includes dispersed clay particles, dissolved salts and dissolved organic substances.
Soil organisms also play a major role in translocation of soil material e.g. Incorporation of surface
organic matter into A and B horizons by certain earth worms, transport of B and C horizon to the
surface by termites and rodents.

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Fig. 1: Sketch of a typical soil profile showing different master horizon.

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SOIL MORPHOLOGY
Soil morphology is the visual observation of morphological features of soil i.e. soil color, texture
and structure of horizons and arrangement of these horizons in the soil profile. This can be studied
in the field by the naked eye (macromorphology), with the aid of hand lens and binocular
stereoscope (mesomorphology), with the electron microscope (micromorphology).
Soil Profile
A vertical section of the soil showing different layers (horizons) and extending into the C-horizon
or parent material (R layer).
Horizon
A layer of soil, approximately parallel to the soil surface, having different properties and
characteristics from adjacent layers below or above it.
Description of a Typical Soil Profile
A common sequence of horizons within a profile comprises of five master soil horizons, i.e., O,
A, E, B and C. Distinctions within these master horizons are designated by the subscripts to
indicate subordinate distinction within the master horizons and layers e.g., Ap, Bt, etc.
Different master horizons or layers that might occur in a soil profile are described briefly in the
form of a diagram.
O Horizon (Organic): The O horizon is comprised of organic material that forms above the
mineral horizon. This results from litter derived from dead plants and animals. O horizon usually
occurs in forested areas and are generally absent in grassland regions.
A Horizon: Mineral horizon that forms at the surface or below an O layer. A horizon shows one
or more of the followings:
1. An accumulation of humified organic matter intimately mixed with the mineral fraction
results darker in color than that of the lower horizons
2. Not dominated by characteristics/properties of the E or B horizons.
3. Have properties resulting from cultivation, pasturing or other similar kinds of disturbance.
E Horizon:
1. Mineral horizon from which silicate clay, iron, aluminum or some combination of these
have been eluviated (leached).

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2. Sand and/or silt sized quartz or other resistant minerals remain there and become
concentrated.
3. An E horizon is generally lighter in color than the A horizon and is found below the A
horizon.
Eluviation: It is the movement of materials out of a portion/layer of soil profile as in E horizon.
B Horizon:
1. Horizon that forms below an O, A or E horizon and shows illuviation (accumulation) of
material from above E horizon.
2. In humid regions, B horizon shows the accumulation of Fe/Al oxides, silicate clays and
humus.
3. In arid and semiarid regions, calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate and other salts may
accumulate in B horizon.
Illuviation: It is the movement/accumulation of materials into a portion/layer of soil profile as in
B horizon.
C Horizon:
1. Unconsolidated material underlying the solum (A, E & B horizons).
2. Mineral horizon or layer (not bedrock) relatively unaffected by pedogenic processes, and
lacking the properties of O, A, E, or B horizons.
3. May be like or unlike the parent material from which solum of soil develops.
R Layer (Bedrock): It is of hard bedrock, not practically diggable with a spade and shows no or
little evidence of weathering.
Transitional Horizons
Transitional horizons are layers of the soil between two master horizons. These exhibit properties
of both the master horizons e.g. AB and BA.
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SOIL CLASSIFICATION/TAXONOMY
Some sort of grouping is necessary to study any heterogeneous mass in nature. It is especially true
for soils as they vary greatly from place to place. SOIL CLASSIFICATION is the systematic
grouping of soils into various categories based on mainly morphological, mineralogical and some
chemical characteristics. WHILE SOIL TAXONOMY is the science that deals with laws and
principles of soil classification.
Categories of Soil Classification
There are six categories of classification.
These are 1) order 2) suborder 3) great group 4) subgroup 5) family 6) series.
Order is the most generalized category. All soils in the world fit into one of the twelve orders. The
names of orders and there significant features are given below.
1. Aridisols: Soils of dry regions
2. Entisols: Recently formed soils
3. Inceptisols: Moderately weathered soils
4. Alfisols: High base status soils
5. Mollisols: Dark organic soils
6. Vertisols: Shrinking and swelling dark clay soils
7. Ultisols: Low base status soils (Acid soils)
8. Oxisols: Highly weathered soils
9. Spodosols: Soils, with subsoil accumulations of humus and sesquioxides
10. Andisols: Generally soils of volcanic origin
11. Histosols: Organic soils
12. Gelisols: Frozen soils
The extent of six orders which occur in Pakistan is as under:
Aridisols > Entisols > Inceptisols > Alfisols > Vertisols.

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS

The soil properties that we can see or feel, which are relatively more permanent than chemical
properties are called physical properties of soil. Such properties are difficult to change. Soil
physical properties include texture, structure, particle and bulk density, porosity, air and water
content, consistency (strength), color and temperature.
Soil Texture
It refers to the relative proportions of the three primary soil separates (sand, silt, and clay).

Soil separates and their diameter ranges

International Society of Soil Science (ISSS)
Soil separate name Diameter range (mm)
Coarse sand 2.0-0.2
Fine sand 0.2-0.02
Silt 0.02-0.002
Clay Less than 0.002

Significance of soil texture

Texture is important because it will, in part determine the ease of tilling the soil, the amount of
aeration (necessary for root growth), water intake rates (absorption) and water storage in the soil.
It also influences soil fertility. For example, a fine textured clayey soil is difficult to till, has poor
aeration for good root growth, difficult to wet and difficult to drain but it can retain more nutrients
and water. A coarse sandy soil is easy to wet, easy to drain and easy to till, has good aeration but
loses more plant nutrients by leaching.
Soil Structure
The term structure relates to the clustering (grouping) or arrangement of primary soil particles into
secondary particles or units called peds or aggregates e.g. Plate like, Block like and Granular.
Importance of soil structure
Soils with good physical condition (tilth) are important to good yield. The formation and
maintenance of stable aggregates is the essential feature of soil tilth. The rate of water infiltration,
water-holding capacity, heat transfer, aeration, porosity and root development are greatly

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influenced by soil structure. For instance, both granular and single-grain (structure less) soils have
rapid infiltration rates, prismatic and blocky soils had medium rates and platy and massive soil
conditions have slow infiltration rates.
Aggregated soil is generally the most desirable condition for plant growth, particularly in the
critical early stages of germination and seedling establishment. The continued existence of large
pores in the sol depends on the stability of the aggregates.
Particle Density
Particle density of soils refers to the ratio of total mass of the solid particles to their total volume
excluding pore spaces (between particles). In technical work, its units are mega-grams per cubic
meter (Mg/m3) or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) or kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3).
Particle density for most mineral soils usually varies between 2.60 and 2.70 Mg/m3. However, the
standard value used in calculations is 2.65 Mg/m3 if actual particle density is not known.
Bulk Density
It is defined as the mass of dry soil solids per unit bulk volume. Bulk volume means the volume
of the soil particles plus pore space. So the density for a volume of soil as it exists naturally is
called bulk density. The value is expressed in Mg/m3 or g/cm3 or kg/m3 (1 g/cm3 = Mg/m3).
Significance of bulk density
1. The bulk density of soil is used for estimating the mass of a volume of a soil too large to
weigh. For example, the average weight of soil for a hectare or acre area per unit depth is
calculated by multiplying the soil volume by its bulk density.
2. It is needed for converting water percentage by weight to content by volume.
3. It is also used for calculating porosity when the particle density is known.
4. It can indicate the differences in compaction of a given soil resulting from heavy tillage
equipment on wet clayey soil.
5. Plant roots of field crops are hindered by soils high in bulk density but to varying degrees.

Pore Space
The pore space of a soil is the portion of soil bulk volume occupied by soil pores (or by air and
water). So it consists of that portion of the soil volume not occupied by solids, either mineral or
organic).

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Importance
The micro pores are generally filled with water in a moist soil and there is slow movement of air
and water into or out of the soil. On the other hand, the macro pores allow the ready movement of
water and air, thus, the movement of water and air through a sandy soil is rapid due to the
dominance of the macro pores, even though total porosity is relatively lower. Clayey soils,
particularly those without good structure allow relatively slow air and water movement despite
having large total pore space. In these soils, the dominating micro-pores generally remain full of
water. However, improvement in structure can promote aeration by increasing the proportion of
macro-pores. Therefore, the pore size distribution is more important rather than the volume of total
pore space.
Soil Aeration
It is the process by which air in the soil is replaced by air from the atmosphere (gaseous exchange).
The rate of aeration depends mainly on the volume and continuity of air-filled pores within the
soil.
Composition of soil and atmospheric air
In a well-aerated soil, the soil air is very similar in composition to the atmospheric air above the
soil. However, poorly aerated soils generally contain a much higher percentage of CO2 and a
correspondingly lower percentage of O2 than the atmospheric air above the soil. Atmospheric air
has about the following composition of the important gases in soils:
Dinitrogen (N2) = 79.0%, oxygen (O2) = 20.95%
Carbon dioxide (CO2) = 0.03%
Water vapor or relative humidity = 20-90%. Soil air is different from atmospheric air as it has
lower oxygen content (14-20%) and relative humidity (95-99%). Plant roots and micro-organisms
take oxygen from soil air and release carbon dioxide into it.
Significance
The oxygen contents are the most important for plant growth as are needed for respiration
(necessary for life and growth). Except rice, most plants need oxygen to be present in the pores
where roots are growing. So the rate at which soil oxygen exchanges with atmospheric oxygen
ODR (oxygen diffusion rate) is important.

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Organic matter decomposition by soil microorganisms also uses oxygen in soils, when there is
little oxygen in soil anaerobes start working and anaerobic microorganisms produce gases (other
than CO2) such as Nitrous oxide (N2O), methane CH4) and H2S. These gases are harmful and are
source of pollution.
SOIL WATER
The availability of water in soil is essential for plant growth. It is also essential to microorganisms
that grow in soil and decompose organic matter. It is important in the weathering process which
involves the breakdown of rocks and mineral to form soil and release plant nutrients. Water is the
solvent that together with the dissolved nutrients make up the solution from which plants absorb
nutrients (mainly through the roots). Soil water can provide control over both soil air and soil
temperature (other two factors essential for plant growth). Water is generally held in the soil by
micro pores. The force of gravity causes water to move downward through the soil, particularly in
the larger pores.
Soil Water Potential
The difference between the free energy of soil water and that of pure, free water in a standard
reference state is known as soil water potential. The soil water potential can be expressed in bars,
atmospheres or kilopascals (kPa).
Soil Water Classification
The most useful classification of water content in soil is the biological classification as it relates
water to plant growth. There is a definite relationship between water retention and its use by plants.
These water contents are classified as gravitational (drainage) water, field capacity, permanent
wilting point and plant-available water.
a. Gravitational water
Water present in excess of field capacity or water held at a potential greater than -33 kPa (-10 to -
33 kPa and upward depending upon soil texture) is called gravitational water. It is available as it
moves through the plant roots if adequate aeration is maintained. It is of limited use to plants as it
is present in the soil only for short periods of time. It can affect plant growth due to poor aeration.
b. Field capacity
The contents of water remaining in a soil two to three days after having been saturated with water
and after the free water (gravitational water) has been allowed to drain away is called field

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capacity. It is the percentage of soil water that is held at -10 to -33 kPa water potential and is a
measure of the greatest amount of water that a soil can store (or hold).
c. Permanent wilting point
It is the amount of water at which plants growing in that soil will wilt and not recover when placed
in a humid chamber. It is estimated at about -1500 kPa water potential or less (more negative).
Water is held so strongly that plants are not able to absorb it fast enough for their, needs.
d. Plant available water
Plant-available water is defined as the weight percentage of total soil water held with a water
potential between -10 to -33 and -1500 kPa and is said to be usable by plants. It is estimated by
subtracting the percentage of water held at the permanent wilting point from the percentage held
at field capacity.
Soil Temperature
The temperature of a soil influences plant growth and crop yields as it generally influences date of
planting, germination and number of days for a crop to mature. The sub-soil temperature is less
variable than the air and surface soil temperatures. The average annual soil temperature can be
approximated by adding about 2oF to the mean annual air temperature (except in arid sunny
regions). Factors influencing heat absorption include soil color, water contents, mulches,
vegetative cover and soil slope as well as its direction.
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 Introduction to Soil Science – I (SAES-5801)

POLLUTION: SOURCES, IMPACT AND MANAGEMENT

Wherever we live, whatever our interests, environmental issues affect us all. All external
conditions, both biotic and abiotic, that affect an organism or group of organisms is called
Environment.
Pollution
It is any alteration of air, water or soil that harms health, survival, or activities of humans and other
living organisms.
Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is any physical or chemical change in soil that adversely affects the health of plants
or other organisms living on and in it.
Soil is polluted due to build-up of persistent toxic compounds, chemicals, salts, radioactive
materials, or disease causing agents, which have adverse effects on plant growth and soil ecology.
Sources of pollution
In modern economies, various types of activities, including agriculture, industry and
transportation, produce a large amount of wastes and new types of pollutants. Soil, air and water
have traditionally been used as sites for the disposal of all these wastes. The most common sources
of pollution can be summarized as under:
1. Effluent discharges from sewage treatment works has Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P),
persistent organic pollutants, pathogens, litter, oxygen depleting substances and suspended
solids.
2. Industrial effluent discharges contain N, oxygen-depleting substances and a broad spectrum
of chemicals (heavy metals) and suspended solids etc.
3. Industrial processes release hazardous chemicals to air, soil and water.
4. Oil fields and storage facilities release hydrocarbons e.g. oil spillage in sea.
5. Landfill sites release N, ammonia, oxygen- depleting substances, broad spectrum of
chemicals and is also a source of pathogens.
6. Fish farming release N, P, oxygen-depleting substances, pathogens, suspended and solids.
7. Use of pesticide, insecticides and herbicides leave chemical residues in soil.
8. Organic waste recycling and agriculture fertilizer release N,P and pathogens.
9. Power generation facilities produce N, sulphur, mercury, and heat (high temperature)
pollution.

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10. Farm wastes release N, P, oxygen-depleting substances, pathogens and suspended and
solids.
11. Mining produce heavy metals, acid, suspended and settle-able solids.
Potential impacts of pollution
Human health
Because humans are at the top of the food chain, they are particularly vulnerable to the effects of
nondegradable pollutants. For example, Mercury released from industry in water can accumulate
in fish and eventually in bodies of the people who consume the fish. This highly toxic element can
cause nervous disorders, and paralysis. More recently research has revealed that many chemical
pollutants, such as DDT interfere with the human body’s reproductive and developmental
functions. These substances are known as endocrine disrupters.
Natural resources
Pollution also has a dramatic effect on natural resources. Ecosystems such as soil, forest, wetland,
and rivers perform many important services for Earth’s environment. They enhance water and air
quality, provide habitat for plants and animals, and provide food and medicines. Any or all of these
ecosystem functions may be impaired or destroyed by pollution.
Effect on soil
Pollution can decrease the availability of the nutrients to the plants and some pollutants Chromium
(Cr), Cadmium (Cd) and Mercury (Hg) are directly toxic to the plants. Pollutants affect the soil
ecology and delicate balance between flora (plants) and fauna (animals).

Ozone depletion
Earth is encircled by a thin protective layer of ozone gas (O3). This layer is found about 20-50 km
above the earth and it serves as a sunscreen, screening out 95- 99% of UV (10-400 nm) radiation.
Due to pollution ozone layer is damaged and ultra violet rays would reach directly to the earth
surface and can cause skin cancer and other complications to the living organisms.
Eutrophication
Undesirable addition of plant nutrients, mainly P and N, to water bodies causes eutrophication. It
is characterized by an intense proliferation of algae and higher plants and their accumulation in
excessive quantities, which can result in detrimental changes in water quality and biological
populations and can interfere with human uses of that water body.

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Socio-Economic implications
Another major effect of pollution is the tremendous cost of pollution cleanup and prevention. In
addition to its effects on the economy, health, and natural resources, pollution has social
implications as well e.g. building of landfills in poor areas.
Management strategies
There are different ways to handle the pollutants produced by variety of sources.
Chemical treatment
It includes the reactions to remove, destroy or modify contaminants (in situ or ex situ) e.g.
Dechlorination of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) contaminated soils, acid leaching of metal-
contaminated soils. Treatment of industrial effluents with different chemicals before releasing
them into the sewerage system. Chemical treatment of waste material is costly and needs more
expertise to handle variety of compounds in the system.
Landfills
Areas where wastes are buried, called landfills, are the cheapest and most common disposal
method for solid wastes worldwide.
But landfills quickly become overfilled and may contaminate air, soil, and water. The other option
is Bioremediation; using natural biological processes to regulate the decomposition of organic
wastes, is an effective strategy for dealing with organic garbage and produces a material that can
be used as a natural fertilizer. Recycling, extracting and reusing certain waste materials, has
become an important part of solid waste management strategies in developed countries
Bioremediation
Bioremediation is a process that uses microorganisms, plants, or microbial or plant enzymes to
detoxify contaminants in the soil and other environment.
Strategies for Bioremediation
A number of bioremediation strategies can restore soil and environmental quality. For a given
contaminant, one or more of the following strategies may be needed to ensure successful
bioremediation.

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Passive bioremediation
It is natural bioremediation of contaminated sites by indigenous microorganism. In this kind of
bioremediation rate of degradation (breakdown) may be too slow for some situation.
Biostimulation
Biostimulation is the addition of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, to stimulate
indigenous microorganisms in soil.
Bioventing
In this gaseous stimulants, such as oxygen and methane, are added in the soil to stimulate microbial
activity.
Bioaugmentation
It is the inoculation of a contaminated site with microorganism to facilitate biodegradation.
Composting
Composting is the use of microorganism in constructed piles of soils or windrows to
degrade/decompose contaminants. It’s a biological process that breaks down organic material
(such as grass clippings and leaves) into more stable materials. In composted material partial
sterilization occurs and weed seeds and pathogenic organism are killed and most of the toxic
organic compounds are destroyed. Nitrogen in the composted material becomes more stable than
the raw waste material. It’s the best option to handle the waste material as the composted material
may be used as natural fertilizer for nurseries, gardens, orchards, vegetables and field crops.
Phytoremediation
It is the use of plants to remove, contain, or transform contaminants. This can be accomplished
directly (e.g., by plants hyperaccumulating heavy metals) or indirectly (e.g., by plants stimulating
microorganisms in the rhizosphere).

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